Chapter Two

Data Communication Layer

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 Chapter Outline

 Architectures

 Protocol standards

 OSI 7-layer reference model and concepts of

open standards

 Motivations for standards

 ISO reference model

 Open standard

 Internetworking with TCP/IP Structure 2

 Communication Architecture
 Network architecture is a design of communication
networks for specification of a network’s physical components
and their functional organization and configuration, its operation
principles and procedures as well as data formats use.
 Network architecture is predominantly expressed by its use of
the internet protocol suits.
Data Communication Architecture:
Network Line Configuration: defines the attachment of
communication devices to a link
 Or both point to point and multipoint connection are line
configuration to connect two or more devices in link.
 Link : a physical communication pathway that transfers data from
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one device to another.
 Cntd…
Multipoint – a line configuration in which more than two
specific devices share a single link
 In multipoint connection a single link can be shared
between multiple devices.
 Single channel shared
 Single transmitter but multiple receiver
 No dedicated line

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 Network Design Models
Flat model:- it is single collision domain and not
hierarchical divided.

It has some advantage:

 Easy to design
 Easy to implement
 It good for small network
 East to maintain and diagnosis
It has some disadvantage:
 Poor security
 No redundancy
 Less speed
 No scalability
 No networks layers
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 Cntd…
 Hierarchical Model:– it is a network model that has three
network layers or divisions and each layers has their own specific
functions
The .
three layers are:
 Access layer: used for service
availably port security on layer 2
switch
 Distribution layer: aggregate data
received from access layer and
switches from sending to core layer,
redundancy and load balancing, control
broadcast domain
 Core layer control: it is a network 6
 Cntd…
It has some advantage of hierarchical model:
 more security
 Better speed or performances
 Facilitate scalable performance of network
 Good for big network
 Easy to troubleshoot

It has some disadvantage of hierarchical model:

 Difficult to design
 Difficult to implement

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 Network Protocols and
 a protocol is a set of Standards
rules that governs data communications
 a protocol defines what is communicated, how it is
communicated, and when it is communicated.
E.g. When one computer sends a message to another
computer, the sender must perform the following general steps
 break the data into small sections called packets
 add addressing information to the packets identifying the
destination computer
 deliver the data to the network card for transmission over the
network
 the receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in
reverse order
 accept the data from the NIC 8
 Cntd…
 the key elements of a protocol are:
 syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data or signal
level
 semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits
 timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent
 Some important characteristics of a protocol are:
 Direct /indirect:
• If two systems share a point-to-point link - direct
• systems connect through a switched communication network –
indirect
 Monolithic/structured
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•
 Standard /nonstandard
Standard are the set of rules for data communication that
are needed for exchange of information among devices.
 Standards which are created by various Standard
Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI etc.
Types of Standards :
1. De Facto Standard - by Fact or Convention which have
not been approved by organization e.g. Apple and
Google
2. De Jure Standard – by Law or Regulations which have
been approved by officially recognized body like ANSI ,
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ISO , IEEE etc.
Standard /nonstandard …

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 Motivations for standards
 Promote and maintain an open and competitive
market for network hardware and software.
 The overwhelming need for interoperability both
nationally and internationally,
 Increased the set of choices in terms of vendor and
capability for each aspect of data communications
 buy hardware and software from any vendor whose
equipment meets the standard
 help to promote more competition and hold down
prices.
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 Layered architecture
 It is to divide the design into small pieces
 Each layer in the model has specific sets of procedures,
functions, and protocols.
 One layer can communicate with an adjacent layer by
using its interface.
 It provides modularity and clear interfaces

the basic elements of layered architecture are:

 Service: is a set of actions that a layer provides to the
higher layer.
 Protocol: a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
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information with peer entity (concern both contents and
 Layered Architecture …
 Why Layered architecture required
 provides more modular design
 Easy to troubleshoot and modify
 reduces complexity (one big problem to smaller ones)
 standardizes interfaces (between layers)
 assures interoperable technology
 accelerates evolution of networking technology
 simplifies teaching and learning
 There are two network models which use layering.
 OSI model and IP/TCP model
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 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference
 developed by International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1970
Model
 Open system interconnection model
 It is conceptual framework allows networking system to be abstracted
in to multiple layers
 Each layer in the model is simplified to communicate with the layers
below it and provide s interface the layers above it
 Why OSI important ???
 Network communication broken smaller, more manageable
 Allows different network hardware and software to communicate
 Independent layers and changes one does not affect other layers
 Easier to understand network communication 15
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference
 Advantage of OSI model Model
 Generic model that guides design and development of any network
model.
 It support layered model.
 Has separates services, interfaces, and protocols
 It supports both connection-oriented and connectionless services.
 Disadvantage
 Theoretical nature no consider practical solution or technologies
 Session and presentation almost empty
 Service duplication d/nt layers addressing, flow and error control.
 do not offer adequate solutions for practical network implementation
 Bad timing and Bad politics

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Reference
Model …
OSI Model has seven layers

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model …

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Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model …

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 Cntd…
 Encapsulation :- is a process in which protocol
information is added to the data.

 de-encapsulation:-is a process in which information

added through the encapsulation process is removed

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Functions of the seven layer of
Layer 7: Application
OSI model
 It closest to the user(User Interface) e.g. web browser, email
 provides network services to the user’s applications
 e.g. file transfer, email, and remote login.
 contains all higher level protocols e.g. HTTP, FTP, and DNS for
communication.

Layer 6: Presentation
 Data Translation (e.g. ASCII to Unicode, EBCDIC, JPEG, MPEG, HTML)
 Encryption/Decryption
 Compression/decompression

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Layer 5: Session Cntd…
 manages communication sessions(opening, closing, and re-establishing)
 handles authentication (apps and servers),
 synchronizes data streams(half ,full duplex)
 prevents operation conflicts, and provides check pointing for data recovery.
 SQL, ASP(AppleTalk Session Protocol), RPC
Layer 4: Transport
 Service point addressing (Port number)
 Segmentation /reassembly
 Connection control (Connectionless or connection oriented )
 Flow control (stop-and-wait)  Transmission services
 quality of services
 error control
 Security
 Multiplexing  e.g. restricting access22
 Layer 3: Network Cntd…
 provides a logical connection b/n different devices.
 end-to-end delivery of packets
 logical addressing
 Routing
 Fragmenting of packets
 E.g. IP, IPX, AppleTalk.
 Layer 2: Data Link
 Framing
 Media Access Control (MAC)
 Logical Link Control (LLC  manage access
 Use MAC address
 Error Detection (e.g. checksums or CRC)
 E.g. Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.
 Flow Control(prevent congestion)
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 Layer 1: Physical Cntd…
 interacts with transmission media
 Define the physical characteristics of transmission medium.
 mechanical: type of connector, no of pins
 electrical: volts represent 1and 0
 Data transmission performance, Bit Rate and Bit Synchronization
 Communication modes ( Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex)
 characteristics are voltage levels, timing voltage changes, physical data
rate, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors
 E.g. EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, BNC

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 TCP/IP Reference Model

 Developed by the Department of Defense

(DoD) through the ARPANET project
 Was designed to ensure data integrity and
maintain communication during cata-
strophic event
 A foundation for modern wide-area com-
puter networks,
 Condensed version of OSI model contains
four layers instead of seven

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 Functions of layer
 Process/Application Layer
 manages node-to-node application communication and user-interface specifications .
 Host-to-Host Layer
 defines protocols for setting up transmission services for applications.
 Internet Layer:
 handling protocols for logical packet transmission across networks.
 Network Access Layer:
 overseeing hardware addressing and physical data transmission protocols

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 Cntd…

Shortcomings of TCP/IP
 No Clear Separation: service, interface, and protocol concepts.
 Not Generic: fails to represent protocol stacks other than TCP/IP
 (e.g. Bluetooth).
 host-to-network layer is not truly a separate layer.
 It does not distinguish the physical and data link layers.

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 Cntd…
OSI: Service, Interfaces and protocols
 Layer Interface specifies how the layer above accesses it and the expected pa-
rameters/results.
 Peer Protocols: Protocols used communication b/n peer devices within a layer.
 Layer as an Object: defined methods for interacting with other layers.

TCP/ IP–no distinction between protocol and service

IP :- Send IP packet and Receive IP packet
Host - to - network (TCP/IP)
 Not really a layer. Interface between network and data link layer
 No distinction between physical and data link layer
 Adhoc application layer protocols
 TELNET: Virtual terminal designed for a character terminal
 no more than a UI
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TCP/IP protocol suits

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 Application/ process layer protocols
 Telnet - allows a user on a remote client machine, called the Telnet
client, to access the resources of another machine, the Telnet server.
 Telnet makes client machine appear as though it were a terminal
directly attached to the server.
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) - is the protocol that actually lets us
transfer files, and can accomplish this between any two machines
 Usually users are subjected to authentication
 Network File System (NFS) – distributed file system protocol allows a
user on a client computer to access files over a network in the same way
as access a local storage file.
 it is open standard, anyone can implement the protocol. 30
 Cntd…
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): uses send mail
 POP3 is used to receive mail.
 Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP): collects and
manipulates valuable network information.
 Works as watchdog over network, quickly notifying managers of any
sudden turn off events
 Domain Name Service (DNS): mapping of IP address with host names
 e.g. www.amu.edu.et to the IP address 10.144.5.30
 Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) - gives IP addresses to
hosts automatically
 It allows easier administration and works well in small to large network
environments
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 Host-to-Host layer
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 Data segments and reassembly
 Use sequence number for each segment
 Order delivery
 Reliable
 Works using three way handshaking
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 No sequence number
 No order delivery of segments
 UDP sends the segments off and forgets
 No acknowledgment
 Best effort delivery (faster transfers)
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 Cntd…
 TCP and UDP
 use port numbers to communicate with the upper layers
 b/c they keeps track of different conversations crossing the network
simultaneously.
 port numbers identify source and destination application or process in the
TCP segment.
 There are 216 = 65536 ports available.
 Well-known ports: port numbers range from 0 to 1023.
 Registered ports: port numbers range from 1024 to 49151.
 used by applications or services that need to have consistent port
assignments.
 Dynamic or private ports: port numbers range from 49152 to 65535.
 are not assigned to any protocol or service in particular and can be used for
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any service or application.
 Cntd…
 If a port is closed/blocked, you cannot communicate with the computer by
the protocol using that port.
Eg. If port 25 is blocked you cannot send mail.
Firewalls by default block all ports.

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 Internet Layer
 Internet Protocol (IP): is the Internet layer protocol
 other protocols found here merely exist to support it
 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) works at the Network layer
and is used by IP for many different services
 used for management and messaging purposes in IP networks
 provides feedback and error reporting mechanisms
 supporting various network diagnostic functions.
 Destination host Unreachable: occurs when the packet does not reach the

destination.
 Suppose sender sends the message, but the message does not reach the
destination
 Buffer Full: If a router’s memory buffer for receiving incoming datagrams is
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full, it will use ICMP to send out this message until the congestion stops.
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 Time exceeded: router decreases a datagram with a time-to-live value to zero
 the router discards a datagram and sends time exceeded message to source.
 executioner router uses ICMP to send a message, informing the sending
machine of the end of its datagram.
 Ping (Packet Internet Groper) uses ICMP echo messages to check the physical
and logical connectivity of machines on a network.
 Trace route: used to discover the path a packet takes as it traverses an
internetwork.
 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) finds the hardware address of a host from
a known IP address.
• Broadcast the message to ask the MAC address and the machine with the
specified IP address to reply with its hardware address.
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 Cntd…
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
 discovers the identity of the IP address for diskless machines by sending out

a packet that includes its MAC address and a request for the IP address
assigned to that MAC address.
 A designated machine, called a RARP server, responds with the answer, and
the identity crisis is over.

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Cntd…

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 Network Access

 Network Access technology detail explanation is

reading assignment
 Wi-Fi(wireless fidelity)
 ATM
 PPP
 Ethernet
 Fast Ethernet
 FDDI
 Token ring

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End of chapter Two
Any question??

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