What is a system?

upgrading an old hardware, suggesting a new

software, adding a new functionality to the existing
A set of things working together as parts of a
mechanism or an interconnecting network; a
complex whole.
 Context for which a new system is
developed
Old system may be inefficient
New system may be required to increase productivity
There could be bugs in the old system that needs to
be fixed
Old system may not cost-efficient
Systems in Organizations
A computer program or computer system is used by
people who work in organizations.

It is very helpful to understand how people,

computers, and organizations work together.
 “System Fundamentals” an overview
Planning and system installation
System planning
Change management
Legacy system
Testing
Implementation methods
Data migration
“System Fundamentals” an overview
User Focus
User documentation
User training

System Backup
Data loss and preventing data loss
 “System Fundamentals” an overview

Software Deployment
Managing releases and updates
 “System Fundamentals” an overview
System Design
Components of a computer system
Hardware, software, peripheral, network, human
resources
Computers in a networked world
Ethics
 “System Fundamentals” an overview
System Design and analysis
Planning and stakeholder involvement
Getting requirements from stakeholders (see also
design process)
Gathering information for solutions (see also
design process)
Illustrate system requirements (see also design
process)
Prototypes (see also design process)
 “System Fundamentals” an overview
Human interaction with the system
Usability
Problems with usability
Improve the accessibility of a system
Moral, ethical, social, economic and
environmental implications of the interaction
between humans and machines (see also ethics)
1.1.1 Identify the context for which a new
system is planned.
Need for a new System
Old system may be outdated
Redundant
Inefficient
Costly to maintain
Cheaper versions may be available
New system may erase errors
 Change Management
Extent - how large is the system, how powerful, how many users,
how much hardware, how powerful the hardware is etc.
Limitations - what stops it from being able to succeed certain limits,
what restrictions are there that cannot be overcome.
New system - for example a new computer network in an office or
school or a new piece of software to be used on a network.
Organisational issues - does the organisation have issues/things to
consider that are specifically to do with them as an organisation.
Installantion of a new system - putting the new system in place and
getting it up and running.
 1.1.2 Describe the need for change
management
Change management is a systematic approach to dealing with
change, both from the perspective of an organization and on
the individual level. A somewhat ambiguous term, change
management has at least three different aspects, including:
adapting to change, controlling change, and effecting change.

A proactive approach to dealing with change is at the core of

all three aspects. For an organization, change management
means defining and implementing procedures and/or
technologies to deal with changes in the business
environment and to profit from changing opportunities.
A computer system
Software
Hardware
User
Environment
 System Life Cycle
Analysis (crit_A project planning)
Design

Development Testing
Implementation

Documentation

Evaluation & Maintenance

Planning
Planning is to think of various details and organizing
activities required to achieve the desired goal.
Planning should forecast disasters in terms of:
Business strategies
Lack of attention to design tasks and overall
usability of the system
Organization culture etc
Planning leads to feasability study
Feasiblity
“The feasibility study is an evaluation and analysis of
the potential of a proposed project which is based on
extensive investigation and research to support the
process of decision making”
 Analysis -- 3 Phases
Problem Definition (Very Important)
Collection of information from current
system
Requirement specification
Feasibility Study (Drafts of his/her
plan)
Need for change management
Involves various parameters
1. Individuals
2. Teams
3. Department
4. Organization

End result of change management : stakeholders

accept and embrace the change effectively.
 Need for change management
Communication regarding need for the benefits of
change
Users may require training
New changes may require new skill sets
Stake holders support
Dependencies between project stages /components
Compatability issues between old system and new
system
Testing
Compatibility issues
Legacy system: when two companies merge, there
could be legacy system issues to handle regarding
compatiblity of systems.

Software compatibility
Legacy system might still work well
Users may not like to switch to new system
Perhaps nobody understands the new system
Analysis for Business mergers
Hardware considerations in business mergers:
1. If both systems are old, then replace with new
system
2. If one is old and the other is relatively new, use
the best system
3. Select one policy for both the businesses

There could be issues from software incompatibility.

 Business merger issues
A business merger is the joining of two businesses. A merger
happens when two firms agree to go forward as a single new
company rather than remain separately owned and operated. This
may create several problems.

The systems used by the companies may be very different. This can
result in time and money being spent converting one system to
another. It may be that two systems will continue to run
independently which may cause problems in terms of data
redundancy.
Business merger issues-contd
If systems are to be replaced then this will have a
cost in terms of purchasing new hardware and
software and retraining staff to use the new system.
Therefore, the system from one company must be
moved into the other one or both has to be moved to
a new system. Resulting in variety of difficulties due
to the different systems being handled.
Data Migration Issues
When an old system is replaced with new system,
there could be issues with data migration due to new
file formats.
New system may not be able to read new file
formats, data structures, validation rules
Incomplete data transfer due to power failure
Data often has to undergo a conversion process
before it can be loaded into the new system
 Analysis
During this phase the project team
investigates any current system(s),
Identifies the problems in the existing
system or identifies improvement
opportunities, and
develops a concept for the new system or
proposes solutions to solve the
problems. (improvements in terms of
reducing paperwork, speeding up the
processing, providing better service)
 Analysis
The analysis phase answers the questions
of :

who will use the system,

what the system will do, and

where and when it will be used.

What are the inputs required and what is

the expected output.

What are the views of the users

Reasons why defining the problem is important
There may be a team of people working on the
project. It has to be communicated to them.
The users of the problem must understand exactly
what will be done – what changes it implies to them.
The costs of the project can be calculated and
weighed against the benefits. These are written
down in the feasibility report.
The system can be tested properly – a system can be
tested only when we know what it is supposed to do.
Collection of information
 Observation

 Interviews

 Questionnaire

 Documenet sample collection

 nt Collection
 Collection of information
 A) Observation
 Advantage: No planning necessary
 Disadvantage: People may not behave naturally when they
know they are observed.

 B) Interviews
 Advantage: Helps in knowing the system from people working
there.
 Can change the question according to the answers he gets.
 Disadvantage: Takes a long time, or may not get appointment
at convenient time.

 C) Questionnaire
 Advantage: Less time consuming because everyone will fill in
the form at the same time.
 Disadvantage : They may not feel comfortable to give full
details.

 D) Sample Document collection :

 Advantage: Collect what documents the organisation
maintaining.
 Disadvantage: It may be difficult to understand the document
and therefore may have to ask people to explain.
 Requirement Specification (Wish List)
Hardware requirement

Software requirement

Storage requirement

Upgradation details of the system

Staff training or number of personnel required with
their roles defined.
A formal agreement on performance of the system
 Feasibility study in terms of
Technical feasibility – can it be done?
Operational feasibility – can it be used?
Economic feasibility – can we afford it?
Legal feasibility – are there any legal (Data Protection
Act) considerations
Schedule feasibility – can it be completed on time ?
(Feasibility study is the output that is produced in the
analysis stage)
 Recording Data
Data Flow Diagram

Flow charts
Symbols of a Data Flow Diagram

Process

Data Storage

Data flow

External
 Symbols of a Flow Chart

Input and
Output Processing

True
Test Condition
False
Start and Stop

Flow line

Subtask
Connectors
 Analysis - 3 stages (Extra notes)
Analysis strategy: This is developed to guide the
projects team’s efforts. This includes an analysis of
the current system.
Requirements gathering: The analysis of this
information leads to the development of a concept
for a new system. This concept is used to build a set
of analysis models.
System proposal (Feasibility Study): The proposal is
presented to the project sponsor and other key
individuals who decide whether the project should
continue to move forward.
 Possible questions
1. What is the role of a system analyst?
2. What are the components of a feasibility study?
3. How can the system analyst use feasibility report for
proposing the new system?
4. What are the methods of data collection?
5. What are the adv and disadv of each method of data
collection?
6. Why is it necessary to define the problem at this stage?
7. What are the issues that arise out of business mergers,
legacy system to a new system, data migration issues.
 Prototype
A prototype is a simple version of the system that is created
at the design stage.
The purpose of a prototype is :-
to identify any corrections to be made at the initial stage
itself than doing at the last.
It saves time and effort by undoing mistakes in the design
stage itself instead doing it after development of the product.
By creating a few prototyping at the analysis/design stage, it
becomes possible for the analyst to suggest alternative
solutions to the problem
Helps to speed up the development of the product
 Design
A Computer system will have the following:

Input Design
Interface Design – GUI, CLI or Menu-
driven
ProcessingDesign
Output Design

Storage Design

Access Details (Who can view, who

can edit)
 Design of Input
 The system analyst has to ascertain the following steps:-
 Step 1:
 Determine what data is required
 Determine the input method
 Input method 1:-
 Data Capture method

Eg., Automatic input device like sensors.

 Input method 2:
 Direct Data input method such as barcode, MICR, OCR

Input method 3:
Manual Input method:
Eg. Hard copy of forms filled in OR Manual input through
the keyboard
 Step 2:
Check for data validation
Do verification checks
 Design of Validation Checks
Validation checks are applied on the fields to check
whether the entered data is valid or not.

This helps in maintaining the integrity of the database.

Validation checks will not correct the data entry

mistakes. For example validation check will not see if
the wrong date of birth is given but it only sees if the
date of birth entered is in the correct format.
 Validation Checks
Following are the methods of validation checks.
Range check –Example: to see if age entered is
between 11 and 13 for grade 7
Format check –Example: all dates to be entered in
the same date format such as 15-Feb-2010
Type check – Example: no text data to be entered in
the “age” field.
Length check – Example: password length not
greater than 8 characters
Presence check – Example: Required field “Yes” or
“No” in the allergy field.
Check Digit validation
A check digit is a number that is used to validate a
series of numbers whose accuracy you want to
insure. Frequently the last digit of a number string
such as identification number is a check digit.

This number is the check digit. There are many

calculations that can be used - this example illustrates
the logic of the MOD11 check digit.
Check Digit using Mod11 method
Steps to calculate the MOD11 check digit for a
number such as an id #:
Assign weights to each digit of the id #. The weights
in MOD11 are from 2 through a maximum of 10
beginning with the low order position in the field.
Each digit in the id # is multiplied by its weight
The results of the multiplication are added together
This product is divided by the modulus number 11
The remainder is subtracted from the modulus
number 11 giving the check digit
 Check digit
0 3 6 5 3 2
x7 x6 x5 x4 x3 x2
0 18 30 20 9 4

0 + 18 + 30 + 20 + 9 + 4 = 81
81/11 = 7 remainder 4
11 - 4 = 7 (7 is therefore the check digit.)
 PROBLEMS: If the remainder from the division is 0 or 1, then the
subtraction will yield a two digit number of either 10 or 11. This won't
work, so if the check digit is 10, then X is frequently used as the check digit
and if the check digit is 11 then 0 is used as the check digit. If X is used,
then the field for the check digit has to be defined as character (PIC X) or
there will be a numeric problem.
 Methods of verification
Double entry method:- In this method, data is
entered twice using two different people or the
same person. The computer compares the two
entries (either after the entry is made or while the
data is entered) and alerts if there are differences. Eg:
Password entered twice to confirm.

Visual check method:- This is the method of

checking for errors by comparing entered data on the
screen with the data in the original document. (this is
not the same as proof reading)
Causes of data loss
Viruses, Malware, deliverate deletion of data
Natural disasters, such as fire, earthquake, floods
Hardware failure
User error (accidental deletion)
Physical damage eg: dropping a hard disk
Power failure can cause data that has not already been
written to disk to be lost. It can be mitigated by using a
UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply)
Backups are essential but they present extra security
issues
 Consequences of data loss in a specified
situation
Business acitivities may have to suspend.
Goods cannot be delivered to customers if their
orders are lost
Customers cannot be billed if their account details
are lost
It is damaging to an organizations’s reputation
Customers may have to be notified
There may be costs associated with replacing the
data
Range of methods to prevent data loss
Back-up on removable media
Advantages- cheaper media available in the market,
simple to install (USB)
Media come in large capacity
It is easy to move to offsite.
Disadvantages - Also easy to LOSE!!
Range of methods to prevent data loss
Offsite : Take backups offsite in case of disasters like fire,
floods
Online : Advantage - Always available.
Disadvantage : need internet connection, possible
security risk

Anti virus : prevent malware from deleting /editing data.

Disadvantage – Antivirus needs to be updated
frequently.
 Methods to prevent data loss
Failover and redundancy:
A redundant system is a clone of an existing that is
kept up-to-date in case the primary system fails
Failover is the process of detecting a failure of the
primary system and switching users to the redundant
system
This is often done with large enterprise servers
because of the high cost that would be associated
with a server outage.
 Design of output
Step 1 :
Determine the output screen. In otherwords,
determine what the organisation wants in the final
printout. (Example: Access Report)
Step 2 :
Develop a Prototype (a sample model) of the output
screen.

Note: As students , you must know how the output

screen will look like or must be able to produce a
printout of the data.
 Design of Storage
•How much input to be stored?

• What should be the field size?

•Will the amount of data to be stored going to

increase in future.

•How often are the data going to be

accessed?
 Design of Process
What calculations are to be performed on data?
Test data, sample data

Are the data to be processed in batches or online or

realtime?
(batch processing is to collect input over a period of time and
process in batches) (realtime is where the response of the
processor is given without any delay and each and every
input is critical) (online is usually monetary, where
transaction is committed)
What variables are to be used?
 Design (Extra notes)
Design Strategy: This clarifies whether the
system will be developed by the company or
outside the company.

Architecture Design: This describes the

hardware, software, and network infrastructure
that will be used.

Database and File Specifications: These

documents define what and where the data will
be stored.

Program Design: Defines what programs

need to be written and what they will do.
 Possible questions
Define prototype and explain the need for prototyping.
What are the areas of design?
What are the methods of input?
What is meant by output prototyping?
What are the methods of verification and validation?
Explain the need for verification and validation.
Causes of data loss, prevention and conseques
 Testing & Implementation
Also called the “Software Development
Stage”.

Test strategy is a must at each stage of

software development.

 Types of testing
Alpha Testing: This type of testing is done within the
testing group before the software is made available to
the public.
Beta testing: Made available to users to get their
feedback and to improve upon it. Feedback contributes
to the support team in order to improve upon in the
future.
Dry-Run – testing done with pen and paper by the
programmer. Mentally runs the algorithm
Testing
Integrated testing : system is tested as a whole to
check its functionality in all areas.

Unit testing – only a small part of the system is

tested.

User Acceptance testing : Happens in the last stage

of testing to check if it meets user requirements
before handing over the system to the user.
Testing for errors
Definition of ERROR
A situation when a computer (system) produces a
result other than what the user would reasonably
expect.
Types of errors
Syntax Error
Ex: System.out.println(“CIS”) // error- no semicolon

Runtime Error
Time given as 23:65 instead of 23:56
Dividing a number by zero causes runtime error.

Logic Error
Ex: A+B/2 (missing paranthesis)
Debugging as a part of testing
Debugging means to correct errors in the program
code.
 Testing & Implementation
Testing is done on the following three types of data:
A) normal data
B) abnormal data

C) extreme data.

Normal data : is data that falls within the normal range (for ex the
month should be between 1 and 12). It should produce normal
output.
Abnormal data : is for example testing to see if the invalid data is
rejected or not. For eg. By typing 13 in the months column to see if it
rejects or accepts. This is to check with the data that falls outside the
acceptability limit.
Extreme data : is giving the extreme values of the range of data. This
is to check the limits of acceptability of the data. For example 1 or 12
for the month.
 Implementation
Two Types

Implementation of a fully new system

Implementation of Changeover system

from old system to a new system.
 Implementation
Four different changeover methods:
1.Direct changeover method
The company has to close or shut down till the system is
implemented. Also called Big Bang method
Advantages:
 Time is not lost in implementation.
 Do not have expense of running two systems together.
 Benefits are immediate.
 Costs are reduced since only one set of workers have to be paid .
Disadvantage:
There is no fall back option in this method of implementation
 If things go wrong, lose all data.
 Failure can be disastrous if the new system fails.
 Methods of implementation
2. Phased Implementation method
 Implementation in different phases. One part of the new system is
introduced, when it proves satisfactory is the next part introduced and so
on till the old system is fully replaced.
Advantages:
 Still have most of system if things go wrong
 No expense of running two systems together
 May lose some data only if things go wrong.
 Information is not lost since there is always a second copy available.
 If the latest part fails, it is only necessary to go back in the system to the
point of failure, hence failure is not disastrous.
Disadvantage:-
 More expensive than direct changeover method, since it is necessary to
evaluate each phase before moving to the next stage.
 Methods of implementation
3. Parallel Running method
Both old and new system work parallel to each other at
the same time till the new system is fully functional.
Advantage:
If the new system fails, the old system is still available as
back up.
It is possible to train staff gradually.
Staff have time to get used to the new system.
Disadvantage:
Have to pay two sets of workers, therefore it is more
expensive than the direct changeover method.
 Methods of implementation
4. Pilot implementation method
The new system is introduced into one part of the company eg., in
the accounts department and its performance is tested.
Advantage:
There is time to train the staff in batches or department-wise.
If the new system fails, only one part of the organization is
affected.
Disadvantage: -
It is more expensive than direct changeover, since each pilot
scheme has to be evaluated before the next stage is introduced.
Pilot/phased/parallel are slow methods of implementation
 Implementation – 3 stages
System Construction: The system is built and tested
to make sure it performs as designed.

Installation: Prepare to support the installed system.

Support Plan: Includes a post-implementation

review.
Implementaion (Extra notes)
During this phase, the system is
either developed or purchased (in
the case of packaged software).

This phase is usually the longest

and most expensive part of the
process.

 Software Deployment
No software is perfect. Complex
software, such as the Linux kernel or
the Windows network stack, often boasts
millions of lines of code.
As such, bugs and security
vulnerabilities are found in critical
parts of the OS after release. An
automated update mechanism (such as
Linux software repositories or Apple's
update servers) is therefore crucial to
ensure the good performance and security
of a computer system.
Software Deployment
Alpha release:

An internal release delivered to the testing group,

an early development version of the program given
to other developers in-house and receiving feedback
from them on improving the product
Software Deployment
Beta testing
First product release for outside testing. Contains all
features but has known issues and bugs. This is done at
the customer’s end. Given to a limited number of end-
users of the product to obtain feedback on the product
quality.

Beta testing reduces product failure risks and

provides increased quality of the product through
customer validation.
Software deployment
Release candidate
All features are completed and there will be no
additional new code but there may still be unwanted
bugs to be fixed. This stage is often called code
complete.

Release numbering
This many appear to be a trivial matter but is very
important in identifying and managing release strategy.
Eg: ios7, ios9
Software Deployment
Steam Update (Game Updates)

Whenever the software is started, the updater will

run, comparing the current version on the PC to the
latest version that is on the internet. If the internet
version > current local version, then the newest
version will automatically be downloaded and
installed. If the user chooses a certain setting, they
will be asked whether or not the update is allowed to
take place.
Software deployment
Windows update It’s a tool used to protect Windows
from hackers and cyber attacks. It keeps windows
updated, helps protect it from malicious software and
keeps it functioning at its best.

Important updates offer significant benefits, such as

improved security and reliability. Examples include
security and critical reliability updates.
Bad update mechanisms such as this Trojan-infected fake Java
update cause undue risks to end-users.
Software deployment

Optional updates are not downloaded or installed
automatically. Examples include less critical driver
updates and new Windows or Microsoft software.

Recommended updates addresses non-critical

problems and help enhance your computing
experience. Examples include upgrades to Windows
features and less important software updates.
Software deployment
Driver Updates : GeForce Experience This software
can update drivers and optimize games so they offer
the best graphics possible with your hardware.

Drivers also impact performance, therefore,

improvements can enhance both stability and in-
game performance.
Software deployment
Java Update
The latest Java version contains important
enhancements to improve performance, stability and
security of the Java applications that run on your
machine.

Open source
Open source software is software whose source code is
available for modification or enhancement by anyone.
 Patching as a method of software
deployment
Types:
Patch in the form of binary executable instead of a source
code, mostly used in proprietary software. This patch
modifies the program executable either by modifying the
binary file to include the fixes or replacing it.

Patch in the form of a source code modifications. Patch
consists of textual differences between two source code files.
These types of patches are mostly used for open source
programs, where it is also expected for the user to compile
the new patch.
 Documentation
Two types of documentation are:

a) Technical Documentation

b) User Documentation

 Purpose of Technical Documentation

To help programmers/analysts make improvements

to system.

To help programmers repair system.

To help programmers maintain system .

Technical Documentation details
a) Algorithms or Pseudocode
b) System Flowcharts
c) Hardware details
d) Software installation instruction
e) File structures
f) Variables details
g) Validation routines
h) input formats/output formats
i) meaning of error messages / programming
language used
User Documentation
Describe the importance of user documentation
User documentation describes how the product is
used for a user of the system.
It will describe each element of the system and
assists the user.
It is important that this document is not confusing
and is written in a clear language.
It must also be as up-to-date as possible.
Purpose of user documentation is to help users to
learn how to use the new system.
 User Documentation details
It may contain the following:-
a) User manual containing operating instructions
b) Troubleshooting tips /FAQ
c) Help support numbers
d) Meanings of error messages
e) input and output methods
f) how to login/logout
g) how to save files, sort data, how to do printouts
h) Screen layouts, sample runs,
i) Tutorials
 Methods of providing user documentation
User manuals : can be provided as PDF file or as an online document
which supports multimedia elements.

FAQs : Frequently asked questions can also be provided both online

and offline to give users answers to a common set of problems that
users of the system experience.

Online Portals: It can provide documents, FAQs, tutorials.

Online support: It can have ticket systems where complaint ticket

number is given which can used for tracking the complaint in order
to resolve it.
 Methods of providing user documentation
Live chat: Live chat can be through text chat or video chat.

Remote Desktop Connections: A technical person can connect and

control the installation process from a remote location.

Embedded Assistance: Software tool tips, help menu with the

software or dynamic page content within the system itself. Eg: when
you hover a mouse over an option, the related tips appears below it.
 Methods of providing user documentation
Authenticity : Copyright seal on product can be provided so that
there is no misuse or illegal distribution of product

Readme.txt : This is a text document that provides instructions on

how to install a product
 Methods of providing user training
Self instruction: This method allows user to learn at
their own pace.
Advantages:
Save on cost of paying fee for the course
Save time in travelling to the training center
Disadvantages:
There could be lack of motivation
Lack of ability to learn on their own
It may not suite learner’s learning styles
 Methods of providing user training
Formal classes:
More expensive than self-instruction method as it
requires trainers and facilities
Advantages:
Allows open exchange of ideas in real time.
There is no communication delay in getting help
Focused learning can happen
Hands-on session would benefit users
Disadvantages:
Shy members may not ask doubts
Difficult to pay individual attention.
 Methods of providing user training
Remote/online training:
Advantages:
Training can take place anywhere at any time and this allows
training to be delivered globally across large distances and
across many time zones
Saves travel time and money
Good access to materials and reliable information can be
provided
Offer individual attention as it is student centered
Disadvantages:
Requires internet connection.
Problem occurs if there are differences in the computer literacy
 Evaluation
It is necessary to take evaluation from the users of the new
system to make improvements on the system. Evaluation can
be in the form of :-
feedback from the users.
Evaluation against objectives of a solution
Evaluation to check whether the new system meets all the
requirement speicifications that were drawn during the
Analysis stage.
Evaluation to identify areas of improvement
Evaluate by observing how the staff is using the new system.
Measure the time taken to do tasks on the new system and
compare time taken to do the same with the old system.
 What Next? (Maintenance)
Maintenance of the system is very important for the
following reasons:
There could be a change in the original speicification.
 Whether hardware needs to be changed to meet the

new requirements.
 Whether old devices have to be upgraded.

 Whether software needs to be updated or modified.

 Whether software has any errors that need to be

corrected or rewritten.
 New technology might have come into the market that

might improve the efficiency of the system, so that

needs to be suggested/implemented..
 What you would have learnt in this Lesson
That ICT systems development follows the System Life Cycle.
That a feasibility study is carried out before proceeding with the
project
That system analysis defines what the system needs to do
What needs to be included when designing a system and a testing
plan
That implementation means building and installing the system
That a new system needs to be tested thoroughly to check that it
works and the client is happy with it.
That users need documentation that suits their skill level.
That evaluation helps you to build a better system next time
That systems need to b monitored and maintained
How to find good quality information.
1.2.1 Define the terms Hardware, Software, Peripheral,
Network, Human resources
Hardware is a collection of physical elements that
make up a machine and its related pieces; the casing,
circuit boards, electronic chips, wires, disks,
keyboards, monitors, the list goes on.

Software is the collection of programs that provide

the instructions that a computer can carry out. At the
very heart of a computer system is the information
that manages.
System Design Basics
Peripheral:
Is a device that is connected to a host computer, but
is not a part of it. A device that is connected to a host
computer but not a part of it. It expands the hosts
capabilities but does not form part of the core
computer architecture. For example, a printer,
mouse, a monitor, a keyboard.
 System Design Basics
Network:
Is a telecommunications network that connects a collection of
computers to allow communication and data exchange between
systems, software applications and users. In information technology,
a network is a series of points or nodes interconnected by
communication paths. Networks can interconnect with other
networks and contain sub networks.
Human Resources:
Is the set of individuals who make up the workforce of an
organisation, business sector or economy.
The department of a business or organization that deals with the
administration, management, and training of personnel. Colloquially
known as "meatware."
 1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer
can take in a networked world.
Client
A client is a computer hardware or software that
accesses a service made available by a server.
Clients usually connect to servers or one another
creating either client-server networks or peer-to-peer
networks. Client: a piece of computer hardware or
software that accesses a service made available by a
server.
 1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer
can take in a networked world.
DNS
A domain name server is a computer server that
hosts a network service for providing responses to
queries against a directory service. Functions to
translate the human memorable domain names and
host names into corresponding numeric internet
protocol.
 1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer can take in a
networked world.
 Email Server
 Email server is a message transfer agent or mail transfer agent or mail relay
software that transfers electronic messages from one computer to another using a
client-server application architecture.

 Server
 Definition: It is a combination of software and hardware that processes and
delivers data to clients in a network. Hardware in a server may vary from server to
server based on the purpose of the server. Likewise different servers may have
different processing powers, based on how much traffic they receive. It is a system
(software and suitable computer hardware that responds to requests across a
computer network to provide or help to provide a network service.
 1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer
can take in a networked world.
Router
A router is a device that forwards data packets
between computer networks. Clients connect to a
router and any incoming or outgoing connections are
managed by the router. It is a device that forwards
data packets between computer networks, creating
an overlay inter-network
 1.2.2 Describe the roles that a computer
can take in a networked world.
Firewall
 Firewall is a software of hardware-based security system that controls the
incoming and outgoing network traffic by analyzing the data packets and
determining whether they should be allowed through or not, based on a rule set.

 A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network.

 Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software, or a combination of

both. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized internet users from
accessing private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets.

 All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall, which
examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security
criteria.
 1.1 Reliability and integrity
 Reliability refers to the operation of hardware, the design of software, the
accuracy of data or the correspondence of data with the real world. Data
may be unreliable if it has been entered incorrectly or if it becomes
outdated. The reliability of machines, software and data determines our
confidence in their value. Integrity refers to safeguarding the accuracy and
completeness of stored data.

 Data lacks integrity when it has been changed accidentally or tampered

with. Examples of data losing integrity are where information is duplicated
in a relational database and only one copy is updated or where data
entries have been maliciously altered.

 1.2 Security
Security refers to the protection of hardware, software,
machines and networks from unauthorized access. Security
measures include restricted access to machines and networks
for certain employees or to prevent access by hackers. The
degree of security of information systems largely determines
society’s confidence in the information contained in the
systems.

 1.3 Privacy and anonymity
 Privacy is the ability of individuals and groups to determine for themselves
when, how and to what extent information about themselves is shared
with others.

 At its extreme, privacy becomes anonymity when, for instance, a person

uses it to conceal his or her true identity in order to cyber-bully someone
else. Conversely, excessive privacy could also conceal the perpetrators of
criminal, terrorist or computer hacking acts from law enforcement
agencies.
 1.4 Intellectual property
Intellectual property includes ideas, discoveries,
writings, works of art, software, collections and
presentations of data. Copyright, trademarks and
patents exist to protect intellectual property.
However, the easy and accurate duplication methods
made available through IT can undermine such
protection.
 1.5 Authenticity
Authenticity means establishing a user’s identity
beyond reasonable doubt. Authenticating the user is
crucial in many scenarios, particularly in business and
legal matters. A simple example of authentication is a
user login to a network. A more advanced example
would be the use of encrypted digital signatures in a
business transaction or the use of watermarking on
digital photographs.
 1.6 The digital divide and
equality of access
The growth of the use of IT systems has led to disparities in
the use of, and access to, information technologies.
Disparities exist not only internationally between countries,
but also within countries between different socio-economic
groups as well as within what may appear to be relatively
homogenous groups. This may lead to groups or individuals
without access to IT being disadvantaged. For example,
while telelearning may bring previously unavailable
opportunities to everyone’s doorstep, factors such as the
cost and availability of hardware, software or access to the
internet may create a “digital divide”.
 1.7 Surveillance
Surveillance is the use of IT to monitor the actions of
people. For example, monitoring may be used to
track, record and assess employees’ performance. It
can be used to support claims for promotion or to
ensure that employees follow the organization’s
internet policy appropriately.
1.8 Globalization and cultural diversity
Globalization means the diminishing importance of
geographical, political, economic and cultural
boundaries. IT has played a major role in reducing
these boundaries. For example, any dramatic event
anywhere in the world can be broadcast almost
instantly by television or on the internet. However,
the new “global village” may lead to the extinction of
minority languages.
1.9 Policies
 Policies are enforceable measures intended to promote appropriate and
discourage inappropriate use relating to information technologies. They can
be developed by governments, businesses, private groups or individuals.
They normally consist of rules governing access to, or use of, information,
hardware, software and networks. For example, a school policy on the use of
IT would consist of each user signing an acceptableuse policy. It would also
address unlawful access to the network through, for example, identity theft
or using hacking software, and how these transgressions would be treated.
Many websites also require users to agree to specific policies before allowing
access to their services. Policies also affect the exchange of information, for
example, by making it subject to copyright laws and raising people’s
awareness of plagiarism. In general, policies can promote or restrict access,
guide behaviour, require the fulfillment of certain conditions prior to or
during use, or need to be developed to address unforeseen issues such as
cyber-bullying.
1.10 Standards and protocols
Standards and protocols are technical rules and
conventions that enable compatibility and therefore
facilitate communication or interoperability between
different IT systems and their components. They
might govern the design and use of hardware,
software and information. For example, the
communication protocols used on the internet, the
ASCII representations for characters, or the design of
the printer port on a personal computer are all
governed by standards.
1.11 People and machines
The use of IT systems brings significant advantages, for
instance in ease of use, being available 24/7, or through its
use rather than exposing humans to a potentially hazardous
environment. However, this can raise concerns about the rate
at which technology is being introduced and issues that may
arise from insufficient testing in critical situations such as air
traffic control. The ultimate fear of many people is that future
systems will be programmed to make decisions that would be
better taken by humans, such as the decision to deploy
nuclear weapons. There are also social impacts such as
internet addiction, where people feel that they can never get
away from IT and are trapped on a “digital treadmill”.
1.12 Digital citizenship
Digital citizenship can be defined as appropriate behaviour that
represents the responsible, ethical and legal approach that
individuals take in any situation with respect to the use of IT.
Digital citizenship permeates, in one way or another, all of the
preceding social and ethical considerations. Other specific social
and ethical considerations
Other social and ethical considerations may emerge during
different scenarios discussed in class. These may be related to
changes in attitudes towards the use of IT systems, or new
developments in IT such as social networking or e-assessment.
1.1.8 Describe the importance of user
documentation
User documentation describes how the product is
used for a user of the system. It will describe each
element of the system and assists the user. It is
important that this document is not confusing and is
written in a clear language. It must also be as up to
date as possible.
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
User Manuals
These can be provided online or offline. This is in the form of a
webpage and lets the user browse chapters of the manual and has
tutorials. One of the bonuses of online manuals is the potential
use of multimedia elements which cannot be placed in a printed
manual.
Manuals can also be provided online as a pdf .
These have the advantage of being able to be printed. The
advantage of the printed version is that it can be read and
referred to away from the computer or an internet connection.
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
FAQ
Frequently asked questions can also be provided both online and offline to
give users answers to a common set of problems that users of the system
experience. They generally relate to usability issues. The screenshot below
gives and example[4]
Online portals
Online support is provided in many ways depending on the product or
service that is being documented. Online portals can provide manuals in
the form of web pages or print versions in Portable Document Format
(PDF). The can also provide FAQ pages as described above. The advantage
of online portals is that they are more likely to provide up to date
information. Companies will also often provide a range of support services
from an online site.
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
Email support
For example online support can be provided by a
ticket system via an email address where you contact
their support team and your problems are resolved
by technicians via a ticketing system. an example of
this is Zendesk. This is an asynchronous type of
support as you have to wait for and responses to
question but you are more easily able to track issues
with ticket numbers and support ticket threads.
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
Live chat sessions
Online support can also be through a live chat or
video session whereby you can get real-time support
from a technician. This support gives a feeling of
being supported by a real person and this is prefered
by many people. It is also real time so can be useful
for issues that need resolving quickly.
This real-time support may also be a video call.
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
Remote desktop connections
Support may also be offered by a remote desktop connection
where a technician will connect to and be able to control your
computer to see first hand what the problem is and resolve it
for you. This solution is ideal if you want your problem solving
quickly and also is very useful if the user is not very
experienced. there are obviously some security issues here as
you are granting an unknown (albeit trusted) third party
access to your computer. Products such as Teamviewer offer
this type of service.
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
Embedded Assistance
Many systems now come with user documentation
such as tool tips and tool tips and dynamic page
content within the system itself. One example is
when you mouse over an icon a small box appears
with help information:
Programs will often have inbuilt help systems such as
this example in Microsoft Word:
 1.1.9 Evaluate Different Methods of providing
user documentation
Authenticity
Certain products , especially software and files have a copyright
seal, disabling certain forms of distribution. Authenticity as user
documentation allows the creator to ensure legally that their work
can only be redistributed under their control. Unfortunately, it is
difficult to know whether these rules are being followed.

readme.txt
README files are commonly included with software and detail
many things from installation instructions to operating
instructions.
 1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering
user training
Self Instruction
 Advantages
 Self instruction will allow the student to learn whenever it is required. Manuals or
other resources such as videos or exercises can be provided and used whenever
the user has the need to find out a particular skill. This means the learning is done
exactly when it is needed and there is no additional unnecessary time wasted on
unneeded skills. There can be a cost saving as the there is no course to pay for or
place to rent or instructor to pay and there is no time lost in training sessions.
 Disadvantages
 The effectiveness is based upon several issues such as the motivation of the user
and their ability to learn on their own. If the materials are not well prepared or
suited to the users learning styles or level of understanding there may be several
issues.
 1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering
user training
Formal classes
 Unfortunately, formal training is generally more expensive than the alternatives as it requires
a professional trainer and facilities. The organization of gathering all of the trainees together
can be problematic or complicated. Fortunately, it does however ensure a certain level of skill
that may not be as certain with other methods. Having a trainer also ensures the ability of
trainees being able to receive help and ask questions.
 Advantages
 Having a formal classroom to conduct training allows an open exchange of ideas in real time.
This can happen between the instructor and the students and there are no barriers to
communication or delay as may be experienced in an online situation. A formal classroom can
tend to focus the learning and gives a more social element to the process which many feel is
essential. The classroom can provide a “real time” space to ask questions and resolve issues.
 Disadvantages
 A classroom situation may disadvantage more shy members of the group and can be
dominated by more vocal and demanding members of the group. It can often be hard for
instructors to isolate or teach those who are having difficulty as there may not be the time to
support them or the need may not even be noticed in a large group.
 1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering
user training
 Remote/online training
 Advantages
 Training can take place anywhere at any time and this allows training to be delivered globally
across large distances and across many time zones. The fact the resources are available at
anytime means that people have flexibility in how they fit the learning in around their own
schedules. Also this allows training resources to be revisited or revised easily.
 Flexibility
In terms of time and place. It can be far more comfortable comparing to traditional ways of
learning.

Save Money
Free access to good reliable information.

Offer more individual attention

Time is not as limited as it would be in a formal and traditional lesson.
 1.1.10 Evaluate different methods of delivering
user training
 Self-Discipline
With online training this skill has to be improved and can be very useful in the future.
 There is a strong element of synergy in online training as the interaction and reflection of a large number of people in
an asynchronous dialogue creates an improved training effect that is greater than the sum of the separate individual
effects.
 There is a level playing field and discriminating effects such as age, gender, appearance, disability and race are
reduced or even in some cases absent. it is also easier to include distinguished experts or train people from other
companies.
 Online training is also student centred due to reflection and dialogue with other students from the initial resources.

 Disadvantages
 In order for online training to be feasible there must be an equity in the access or provision of the required
technology. there may be economic or logistical reasons for this not being the case. This may be as simple as the
provision of computers or the access to a reliable internet connection. Problems also occur in the differences in
computer literacy. If these skills are not present then the training will not be successful. The course itself must be
user friendly and reliable if it is to succeed.
 Good trainers in the “real world” do not necessarily make good instructors in the online environment and they will
need to have a high level and understanding of the requirements and success criteria of running an online
environment.
 There are some things that cannot be taught online as the limitations are too great and a face to face or hands on
approach is necessary.

Usability
Usability refers to the potential of the product to
accomplish user goals.

It relates to the effectiveness, efficiency and

satisfaction in a specified context of use.
Ergonomics
Or human engineering refers to the design of safe
and comfortable product or systems or processes
specifically for people.

For ex: computer hardware such as keyboards are

shaped by ergonomic consideration in order to
improve users comfort.
Accessibility
Accessibility refers to the potential of a service,
product, device or environment to serve and meet
the needs of as many individuals as possible.

A system with high accessibility can meet the needs

of many people.
 Eight quality components of usability
1. Complexity/Simplicity : Amount of effort to find the
solution

2. Effectiveness: Comparison of user performance with

predefined level

3. Efficiency: Error : Number of errors made and time

take to recover

4. Learnability: Amount of time taken to accomplish task

when used for the first time.
 Eight quality components of usability
5. Memorability: the number of steps users need to
remember when they come back to use a device after a
period of time of not using it

6. Readability/comprehensibility : reading speed, contrast

background

7. Satisfaction: Pleasant to use, satisfaction of using the

application

8. Errors : Number of errors, type of errors and the time to

recover from errors