Probability and

Statistics
Course Code: STAT-2104
Engr. Syed M. Hammad
Lecturer
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
KFUEIT, RYK.

1
Counting Sample Points
• One of the problems that the statistician must consider and attempt to evaluate
is the element of chance associated with the occurrence of certain events when
an experiment is performed.
• In many cases, we shall be able to solve a probability problem by counting the
number of points in the sample space without actually listing each element.
• The fundamental principle of counting, often referred to as the multiplication
rule.

• Rule 2.1 stated that if an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for each
of these ways a second operation can be performed in n2 ways, then the two
operations can be performed together in n1n2 ways.

2
Examples
• Ex. 1: How many sample points are there in the sample space when a pair of
dice is thrown once?

• Solution : The first die can land face-up in any one of n 1 = 6 ways. For each of
these 6 ways, the second die can also land face-up in n 2 = 6 ways.

• Therefore, the pair of dice can land in n 1n2 = (6)(6) = 36 possible ways.
• Ex. 2: If a 22-member club needs to elect a chair and a treasurer, how many
different ways can these two to be elected?
• Solution : For the chair position, there are 22 total possibilities. For each of
those 22 possibilities, there are 21 possibilities to elect the treasurer. Using the
multiplication rule, we obtain

n1 × n2 = 22 × 21 = 462 different ways.

3
Generalized multiplication rule
• If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for each of these a second
operation can be performed in n2 ways, and for each of the first two a third
operation can be performed in n3 ways, and so forth, then the sequence of k
operations can be performed in n1n2 · · · nk ways.
• The multiplication rule, Rule 2.1 may be extended to cover any number of
operations.
• Suppose, for instance, that a customer wishes to buy a new cell phone and can
choose from n1 = 5 brands, n2 = 5 sets of capability, and n 3 = 4 colors.

• These three classifications result in n 1n2n3 = (5)(5)(4) = 100 different ways for a
customer to order one of these phones.

4
Examples
• Ex. 1 : Sam is going to assemble a computer by himself. He has the choice of
chips from two brands, a hard drive from four, memory from three, and an
accessory bundle from five local stores. How many different ways can Sam
order the parts?
• Solution : Since

n1 = 2, n2 = 4, n3 = 3, and n4 = 5, there are

nl × n2 × n3 × n4 = 2× 4 × 3 × 5 = 120 different ways to order the parts.

5
Permutations
• A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a set of objects.
• Frequently, we are interested in a sample space that contains as elements all
possible orders or arrangements of a group of objects.
• For example, we may want to know how many different arrangements are
possible for sitting 6 people around a table, or we may ask how many different
orders are possible for drawing 2 lottery tickets from a total of 20. The different
arrangements are called permutations.
• Consider the three letters a, b, and c. The possible permutations are abc, acb,
bac, bca, cab, and cba. Thus, we see that there are 6 distinct arrangements. Like
n1n2n3 = (3)(2)(1) = 6 permutations
• For any non-negative integer n, n!, called “n factorial,” is defined as n! = n(n − 1)
· · · (2)(1), with special case 0! = 1.
• Theorem 1: The number of permutations of n objects is n!. Like the number of
permutations of the four letters a, b, c, and d will be 4! = 24.
6
Theorem 2
• Now consider the number of permutations that are possible by taking two
letters at a time from four. These would be ab, ac, ad, ba, bc, bd, ca, cb, cd, da,
db, and dc.

• Using Rule 2.1 again, we have two positions to fill, with n1 = 4 choices for the
first and then n2 = 3 choices for the second, for a total of

n1n2 = (4)(3) = 12

permutations. In general, n distinct objects taken r at a time can be arranged in

n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · (n − r + 1) ways.

• We represent this product by the symbol when the number of permutations of n
distinct objects taken r at a time is

7
8
Examples
• Ex. 1: In one year, three awards (research, teaching, and service) will be given
to a class of 25 graduate students in a statistics department.
• If each student can receive at most one award, how many possible selections
are there?
• Solution : Since the awards are distinguishable, it is a permutation problem.
The total number of sample points is

25 P3 = 25!/(25 − 3)!=25!/22! = (25)(24)(23) = 13, 800.

• Ex.2: A president and a treasurer are to be chosen from a student club
consisting of 50 people. How many different choices of officers are possible if
there are no restrictions;
• Solution : The total number of choices of officers, without any restrictions, is

50 P2 =50!/48! = (50)(49) = 2450.

9
Theorem 3, Circular permutations
• Permutations that occur by arranging objects in a circle are called circular
permutations.
• The number of permutations of n objects arranged in a circle is (n − 1)!.
• Two circular permutations are not considered different unless corresponding
objects in the two arrangements are preceded or followed by a different object
as we proceed in a clockwise direction.
• For example, if 4 people are playing bridge, we do not have a new permutation
if they all move one position in a clockwise direction.
• By considering one person in a fixed position and arranging the other three in
3! ways, we find that there are 6 distinct arrangements for the bridge game.

10
11
Theorem 4
• So far we have considered permutations of distinct objects. That is, all the objects
were completely different or distinguishable.
• Obviously, if the letters b and c are both equal to x, then the 6 permutations of the
letters a, b, and c become axx, axx, xax, xax, xxa, and xxa, of which only 3 are
distinct.
• Therefore, with 3 letters, 2 being the same, we have 3!/2! = 3 distinct
permutations. With 4 different letters a, b, c, and d, we have 24 distinct
permutations.
• If we let a = b = x and c = d = y, we can list only the following distinct
permutations: xxyy, xyxy, yxxy, yyxx, xyyx, and yxyx.
• Thus, we have 4!/(2! 2!) = 6 distinct permutations. The number of distinct
permutations of n things of which n1 are of one kind, n2 of a second kind, . . . , nk of
a kth kind is

n! / n1!n2! · · · nk!
12
Example
• In a college football training session, the defensive coordinator needs to have
10 players standing in a row. Among these 10 players, there are 1 freshman, 2
sophomores, 4 juniors, and 3 seniors. How many different ways can they be
arranged in a row if only their class level will be distinguished?
• Solution : Directly using Theorem 2.4, we find that the total number of
arrangements is

10!/1! 2! 4! 3! = 12, 600

13
Theorem 5
• The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with n 1
elements in the first cell, n 2 elements in the second, and so forth, is

where n1 + n2 + · · · + nr = n.
• Often we are concerned with the number of ways of partitioning a set of n
objects into r subsets called cells.
• A partition has been achieved if the intersection of every possible pair of the r
subsets is the empty set φ and if the union of all subsets gives the original set.
• The order of the elements within a cell is of no importance.
• Consider the set {a, e, i, o, u}. The possible partitions into two cells in which
the first cell contains 4 elements and the second cell 1 element are

14
Example
• Consider the set {a, e, i, o, u}. The possible partitions into two cells in which
the first cell contains 4 elements and the second cell 1 element are

{(a, e, i, o), (u)}, {(a, i, o, u), (e)}, {(e, i, o, u), (a)}, {(a, e, o, u), (i)}, {(a, e, i, u),
(o)}.
• We see that there are 5 ways to partition a set of 4 elements into two subsets,
or cells, containing 4 elements in the first cell and 1 element in the second.
• The number of partitions for this illustration is denoted by the symbol

• where the top number represents the total number of elements and the bottom
numbers represent the number of elements going into each cell.

15
Theorem 6
• The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is

• In many problems, we are interested in the number of ways of selecting r

objects from n without regard to order.
• These selections are called combinations. A combination is actually a partition
with two cells, the one cell containing the r objects selected and the other cell
containing the (n−r) objects that are left.
• The number of such combinations, denoted by

is usually shortened to

16
Examples
• A young boy asks his mother to get 5 Game-Boy TM cartridges from his collection
of 10 arcade and 5 sports games. How many ways are there that his mother
can get 3 arcade and 2 sports games?
• The number of ways of selecting 3 cartridges from 10 is

• The number of ways of selecting 2 cartridges from 5 is

• Using the multiplication rule (Rule 2.1) with n 1 = 120 and n2 = 10, we have
(120)(10) = 1200 ways.

17
Exercise Questions

18
Exercise
• Question: Registrants at a large convention are offered 6 sightseeing
tours on each of 3 days. In how many ways can a person arrange to go on
a sightseeing tour planned by this convention?

• Solution: With n1 = 6 sightseeing tours each available on n2 = 3 different

days, the multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (6)(3) = 18 ways for a person to
arrange a tour.
• Question: In a medical study, patients are classified in 8 ways according
to whether they have blood type AB+, AB , A+, A− , B+, B − , O+, or O
− , and also according to whether their blood pressure is low, normal, or
high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can be classified.

• Solution : With n1 = 8 blood types and n2 = 3 classifications of blood

pressure, the multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (8)(3) = 24 classifications.

19
Exercise
• Question: If an experiment consists of throwing a die and then drawing a
letter at random from the English alphabet, how many points are there in the
sample space?

• Solution: Since the die can land in n1 = 6 ways and a letter can be selected
in n2 = 26 ways, the multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (6)(26) = 156 points in
S.
• Question: A certain brand of shoes comes in 5 different styles, with each
style available in 4 distinct colors. If the store wishes to display pairs of these
shoes showing all of its various styles and colors, how many different pairs
will the store have on display?

• Solution: With n1 = 5 different shoe styles in n2 = 4 different colors, the

multiplication rule gives n1n2 = (5)(4) = 20 different pairs of shoes.

20
Exercise
• Question: A drug for the relief of asthma can be purchased from 5 different
manufacturers in liquid, tablet, or capsule form, all of which come in regular
and extra strength. How many different ways can a doctor prescribe the drug
for a patient suffering from asthma?

• Solution: With n1 = 5 different manufacturers, n2 = 3 different preparations,

and n3 = 2 different strengths, the generalized multiplication rule yields n1n2n3
= (5)(3)(2) = 30 different ways to prescribe a drug for asthma.
• Question: In how many different ways can a true-false test consisting of 9
questions be answered?

• Solution: With n1 = 2 choices for the first question, n2 = 2 choices for the
second question, and so forth, the generalized multiplication rule yields n1n2 ·
· · n9 = 29 = 512 ways to answer the test.

21
Exercise
• Question: (a) How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters
of the word COLUMNS?
• (b) How many of these permutations start with the letter M?
• Solution: (a) By Theorem 3, 7! = 5040.
• (b) Since the first letter must be m, the remaining 6 letters can be arranged
in 6! = 720 ways.
• Question: How many different letter arrangements can be made from the
letters in the word STATISTICS?
• Solution: In this we can actually apply Theorem 5 to obtain

22
Exercise
• Question: In how many ways can 7 graduate students be assigned to 1 triple
and 2 double hotel rooms during a conference?
• Solution : The total number of possible partitions would be

• Question: In a regional spelling bee, the 8 finalists consist of 3 boys and 5 girls.
Find the number of sample points in the sample space S for the number of
possible orders at the conclusion of the contest for (a) all 8 finalists; (b) the first
3 positions.
• Solution: (a) Any of the n1 = 8 finalists may come in first, and of the n2 = 7
remaining finalists can then come in second, and so forth. By Theorem 2.3, there
8! = 40320 possible orders in which 8 finalists may finish the spelling bee.
• (b) The possible orders for the first three positions are 8P3 = 8!/5! = 336. ….

23
Exercise
• Question: (a) In how many ways can 6 people be lined up to get on a bus?
(b) If 3 specific persons, among 6, insist on following each other, how many
ways are possible?
(c) If 2 specific persons, among 6, refuse to follow each other, how many
ways are possible?
• Solution: (a) By Theorem 2.3, there are 6! = 720 ways.
(b) A certain 3 persons can follow each other, let observe these three specific
person as one person. Then we will have 4 person instead of 6 people. Hence
the number of permutation of 4 people is (4!) = 24 ways with regard to order.
The other 3 persons can then be placed in line in 3! = 6 ways. By Theorem
2.1, there are total (24)(6) = 144 ways to line up 6 people with a certain 3
following each other.
(c) Similar as in (b), the number of ways that a specified 2 persons can follow
each other in a line of 6 people is (5! x 2) = 240 ways. Therefore, there are
720 − 240 = 480 ways if a certain 2 persons refuse to follow each other.

24
Exercise
• Question: A California study concluded that following 7 simple health rules
can extend a man’s life by 11 years on the average and a woman’s life by 7
years. These 7 rules are as follows: no smoking, get regular exercise, use
alcohol only in moderation, get 7 to 8 hours of sleep, maintain proper weight,
eat breakfast, and do not eat between meals.
• In how many ways can a person adopt 5 of these rules to follow
(a) if the person presently violates all 7 rules?
(b) if the person never drinks and always eats breakfast?

25
Solution

26
Cont.

27
Assignment # 2
• Question 1: Four married couples have bought 8 seats in the same row for a concert.
In how many different ways can they be seated

(a) with no restrictions? (b) if each couple is to sit together?

(c) if all the men sit together to the right of all the women? (CLO – II)
• Question 2: In how many ways can 5 starting positions on a basketball team be filled
with 8 men who can play any of the positions? (CLO – II)
• Question 3: How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word
INFINITY ? (CLO – II)
• Question 4: In how many ways can 3 oaks, 4 pines, and 2 maples be arranged along a
property line if one does not distinguish among trees of the same kind? (CLO –
II)

Last date of submission is 25 th June 2021 before 4.00 pm.

28