Computer Security

Lecture: 01-02
Mathematics for Security
 Books Recommended

1. Cryptography & Network Security

- Behrouz A Forouzan
2. Cryptography & Network Security
- William Stallings

Slide-2
 Lecture-01-02: Mathematics for Security
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Objectives of this Lecture:

❖ To review integer arithmetic, concentrating on divisibility.
❖ To find the greatest common divisor using the Euclidean
algorithm.
❖ To understand how the extended Euclidean algorithm can
be used to solve linear Diophantine equations.
❖ To determine the multiplicative & additive inverse of an
integer.
❖ To emphasize the importance of modular arithmetic and
the modulo operator, because they are extensively used
in cryptography.

Slide-3 IIT, JU
 Why Need Mathematics in Cryptography?
❖ Modern cryptography is heavily based on some areas of mathematics,
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

including number theory, linear algebra, and algebraic structures.

❖ Cryptographic algorithms are designed around computational hardness
assumptions using mathematical functions and formula, making such
algorithms hard to break in practice by any adversary.
❖ A list of mathematical fields used in cryptography is given below.
❑ Number theory:
It is used to understand why and how RSA works. Some algorithms use
number theory for the difficulty of factoring large numbers as their basis.
❑ Group theory:
Group theory is used to understand why and how El Gamal works.
❑ Probability theory:
It is used in analyzing many kinds of ciphers to better understand what
"statistical security" means.
❑ Algebraic structure:
The theory of finite fields is used in multiparty computation.
❑ Linear Algebra:
Lagrange interpolation is used in Shamir's Secret Sharing Scheme. Some
linear operations are also used in AES.
Slide-4 IIT, JU
 Integer Arithmetic: The Set of Integers
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ In integer arithmetic, we use a set and a few operations.

⮚ We are already familiar with this set and the corresponding
operations, but they are reviewed here to create a background for
modular arithmetic.
⮚ The set of integers, denoted by Z, contains all integral numbers (with
no fraction) from negative infinity to positive infinity.
⮚ Figure below shows the set of integers.

Figure: The set of

integers

Slide-5 IIT, JU
 Binary Operations
❖ A binary operation takes two inputs (e.g. a and b) and creates one
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

output (e.g. c).

❖ In cryptography, we are interested in three binary operations applied
to the set of integers: addition, subtraction and multiplication.

Figure: Three binary operations for the set of integers

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 Binary Operations
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

❖ The following examples shows the results of the three binary

operations on two integers.
❖ Because each input can be either positive or negative, we can
have four cases for each operation.

Slide-7 IIT, JU
 Integer Division
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ In integer arithmetic, if we divide a by n, we can get q and r. The

relationship between these four integers can be shown as

a=q×n+r

Where,
❖ a 🡪 dividend
❖ n 🡪 divisor
❖ q 🡪 quotient
❖ r 🡪 remainder

Note:
⮚ Division is not a binary operation, because it produces two output
instead of one (q and r). Instead, we can call it division relation.

Slide-8 IIT, JU
 Integer Division
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ Assume that a = 255 and n = 11. We can find q = 23 and r = 2 using

the division algorithm.

Figure: Finding the quotient and the remainder

Slide-9 IIT, JU
 Integer Division
⮚ When we use the above division relationship in cryptography, we
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

impose two restrictions:

1. The divisor be a positive integer (i.e. n>0)
2. The remainder be a non-negative integer (i.e. r>=0)

Figure: Division algorithm for

Slide-10 integers IIT, JU
 Integer Division
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ When we use a computer or a calculator, r and q are negative

when a is negative.
⮚ How can we apply the restriction that r needs to be positive?
⮚ The solution is simple, we decrement the value of q by 1 and we
add the value of n to r to make it positive.

n r r=n+r

q q = q-1

Slide-11 IIT, JU
 Divisibility
Division relation is: a=q×n+r
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Where
a 🡪 dividend
n 🡪 divisor
q 🡪 quotient
r 🡪 remainder

If a is not zero and we let r = 0 in the division relation, we get:

a=q×n
We then say that
▪ n divides a
▪ or, n is a divisor of a
▪ or, a is divisible by n

Therefore, when a is divisible by If a is not divisible by n (i.e. if r is

n and we are not interested in not zero), then we can write the
the value of q, we can write the above relation as
above relation as a|n
Slide-12 IIT, JU
 Divisibility
Example :
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

a. The integer 4 divides the integer 32 because 32 = 8 × 4. We

show this as

b. The number 8 does not divide the number 42 because

42 = 5 × 8 + 2. There is a remainder, the number 2, in the
equation. We show this as

Example:

Slide-13 IIT, JU
 Properties of Divisibility
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Property 1: if a|1, then a = ±1.

Property 2: if a|b and b|a, then a = ±b.

Property 3: if a|b and b|c, then a|c.

Example:
Since 3|15 and 15|45, then according to this property, 3|45

Property 4: if a|b and a|c, then

a|(m × b + n × c), where m
and n are arbitrary integers
Example:
Since 3|15 and 3|9, then according to this property, 3|(15x2+9x4),
which means 3|66

Slide-14 IIT, JU
 GCD: Greatest Common Divisor
⮚ A positive integer can have more than one divisor. For example, the
integer 32 has six divisors: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32.
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ We can mention two interesting facts about divisors of positive

integers:

Fact 1:
❑ The integer 1 has only one divisor, itself.

Fact 2:
❑ Any positive integer has at least two divisors, 1 and itself (but it can have
more).

⮚ The greatest common divisor (GCD) of two positive integers is the

largest integer that can divide both integers.
⮚ GCD is often needed in cryptography.
⮚ Two positive integers may have many common divisors, but only one is
the greatest of them.
⮚ For example, the common divisors of 12 and 140 are: 1, 2, and 4.
However, the greatest common divisor is 4.
Slide-15 IIT, JU
 Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Slide-16
GCD: Greatest Common Divisor

Figure: Common divisors of two integers

IIT, JU
 GCD Using Euclidean Algorithm
⮚ Finding the GCD of two positive integers by listing all common
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

divisors is not practical when the two integers are large.

⮚ More than 2000 years ago, a mathematician named Euclid

developed an algorithm that can find the GCD of two large positive
integers.

⮚ The Euclidean algorithm is based on the two facts:

Fact 1: When 2nd integer is zero, then gcd (a, 0) = a

Example: gcd(5, 0) = 5

Fact 2: When both integer is positive, then gcd (a, b) = gcd (b, r),
where r is the remainder of dividing a by b (here the value
of first and second integer is changed until the second
integer becomes zero.
Example:
Gcd(36, 10) = gcd(10, 6) = gcd(6, 4) = gcd(4,2) = gcd(2, 0) = 2
Slide-17 IIT, JU
 GCD Using Euclidean Algorithm
⮚ Figure below shows how we use Fact 1 and Fact 2 to calculate gcd (a, b)
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure: Euclidean Algorithm

Note:
⮚ When gcd (a, b) = 1, we say that a and b are relatively prime or they
are coprime.
Slide-18 IIT, JU
 GCD Using Euclidean Algorithm
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find the greatest common divisor of 2740 and 1760.

Solution:

We have gcd (2740, 1760) = 20.

Slide-19 IIT, JU
 GCD Using Euclidean Algorithm
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find the greatest common divisor of 25 and 60.

Solution:
We have gcd (25, 60) = 5.

Note:
⮚ The above example shows that it does not matter if the first number
is smaller than the second number. We immediately get our correct
ordering gcd(60, 25).
Slide-20 IIT, JU
 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ Given two integers a and b, we often need to find other two

integers, s and t, such that

⮚ The extended Euclidean algorithm can calculate the gcd (a, b)

and at the same time calculate the value of s and t.

⮚ Using extended Euclidean algorithm, we also can find the

solutions to the linear Diophantine equations of two variables, an
equation of type ax + by = c.

Slide-21 IIT, JU
 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure: Extended Euclidean algorithm, part a: Process

Note:
⮚ Figure shows that the extended Euclidean algorithm uses the same number
of steps as the Euclidean algorithm, however, in each step, we use three sets
of calculations and exchanges instead of one.
⮚ Here, three sets of variables are used: r’s, s’s and t’s.
Slide-22 IIT, JU
 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure: Extended Euclidean algorithm, part b: Algorithm

Slide-23 IIT, JU
 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Given a = 161 and b = 28, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s and t
such that gcd(a, b) = s × a + t × b.

Solution: r = r1 – q × r2 s = s1 – q × s2 t = t 1 – q × t 2

We get gcd (161, 28) = 7, s = −1 and t = 6.

The result can be tested, because (-1) × 161 + 6 × 28 = 7

Slide-24 IIT, JU
 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Given a = 17 and b = 0, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s

and t.

Solution:

We get gcd (17, 0) = 17, s = 1, and t = 0.

Slide-25 IIT, JU
 Extended Euclidean Algorithm
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Given a = 0 and b = 45, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s

and t.

Solution:
We get gcd (0, 45) = 45, s = 0, and t = 1.

Slide-26 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ Given any positive integer n and any nonnegative integer a, if we

divide a by n, we get an integer quotient q and an integer
remainder r such that a = q × n + r.

⮚ This division relation has two inputs (a and n) and two outputs (q
and r).

⮚ In modular arithmetic, we are interested in only one of the

outputs, the remainder r. In other words, we want to know what
is the value of r when we divide a by n. This implies that, using
modular arithmetic, we can change the division relation into a
binary operator (called modulo operator) with two inputs a and n
and one output r.

⮚ Several important cryptosystems make use of modular

arithmetic.

Slide-32 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic
⮚ The modulo operator is shown as mod. The second input (n) is
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

called the modulus. The output r is called the residue.

⮚ Figure below shows the division relation compared with the modulo
operator.
Figure: Division relation Vs. modulo operator

⮚ In the figure we see that the modulo operator (mod) takes an

integer (a) from the set of integers (Z) and a positive modulus
(n). The operator creates a non-negative residue (r) where 0 <= r
<= n-1. We can say that:
a mod n = r

Slide-33 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic
Calculation of a mod
n: There are three cases:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Case-1: When both of a and n is positive integer where a<n:

In this case, we add as many multiples of n with a as necessary

to get a greater than n. Then divide a by n to get the remainder
r. The result will be in the range 0 to n-1.
For example, 2 mod 7 = 9 mod 7 = 2.

Case-2: When both of a and n is positive integer where a>=n:

In this case, just divide a by n to get the remainder r. The result
will be in the range 0 to n-1.
For example, 9 mod 7 = 2.

Case-3: When a is negative and n is positive integer:

In this case, we add as many multiples of n with a as necessary to
get a positive and greater than n. Then divide a by n to get the
remainder r. The result will be in the range 0 to n-1. The process is
known as modulo reduction.
For example, -12 mod 7 = -5 mod 7 = 2 mod 7 = 9 mod 7
Slide-34 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find the result of the following operations:

a. 27 mod 5 b. 36 mod 12
c. −18 mod 14 d. −7 mod 10

Solution:
a. Dividing 27 by 5 results in r = 2. Therefore 27 mod 5 = 2
b. Dividing 36 by 12 results in r = 0. Therefore 36 mod 12 = 0
c. Dividing −18 by 14 results in r = −4. After adding the modulus
(14) with the result to make it non-negative, we have r = -4 + 14
= 10. Therefore -18 mod 14 = 10
d. Dividing −7 by 10 results in r = −7. After adding the modulus
(10) with the result to make it non-negative, we have r = -7 + 10
= 3. Therefore –7 mod 10 = 3

Slide-35 IIT, JU
 Zn: Set of Residues
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ The result of a mod n is always an integer between 0 and n-1.

⮚ Therefore, the modulo operation creates a set, which in modular

arithmetic is referred to as the set of least residues modulo n, or Zn.

⮚ Figure below shows the set of residues Zn and three instances of the
set of residues Z2, Z6, Z11.

Figure: Some Zn sets

Slide-36 IIT, JU
 Congruence
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ The result of 2 mod 10 = 2, 12 mod 10 = 2, 22 mod 10 = 2, 32 mod

10 = 2 and so on.
⮚ In modular arithmetic, integers like 2, 12, 22 and 32 are called
congruent mod 10.
⮚ To show that two integers are congruent, we use the congruence
operator ( ≡ ). For example, we write:

Slide-37 IIT, JU
 Congruence
Figure below shows the idea of congruence.
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure 2.11 Concept of congruence

Slide-38 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic
Residue Sets or Classes:
A residue class [a] or [a]n is the set of integers congruent modulo n. That
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

is, a residue class is the set of all integers such that x = a (mod n). For
example, if n = 5, we have five sets of residue classes [0], [1], [2], [3]
and [4] as shown below:

Note:
⮚ All the integers in the residue class [0] are reduced to 0 when we
apply the modulo 5 operation on them.
⮚ Similarly, all the integers in the residue class [1] are reduced to 1
when we apply the modulo 5 operation on them, and so on.

In each residue set or class, there is one element called the least residue.
For example, in set [0], [1], [2], [3] and [4], this element (least residue) is
1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively. The set of all of these least residues is written
as Z5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. In other words, the set Zn is the set of all least
residue modulo n.
Slide-39 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Inverse
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ In cryptography, we often need to find the inverse of a number relative

to an operation e.g., encryption/decryption.
⮚ For example, if the sender uses an integer as the encryption key, the
receiver uses the inverse of that integer as the decryption key.
⮚ We are normally looking for two kinds of inverse:
❑ Additive Inverse
❖ If the operation is addition, we are normally looking for additive
inverse.

❖ The set of additive inverse is expressed as Zn

❑ Multiplicative Inverse
❖ If the operation is multiplication, we are normally looking for
multiplicative inverse.

❖ The set of multiplicative inverse is expressed as Zn*

Slide-40 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Additive Inverse
⮚ In Zn, two numbers a and b are additive inverses of each other if
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ In modular arithmetic, each integer has an additive inverse.

⮚ The sum of an integer and its additive inverse is congruent to 0
modulo n.

Example:
Find all additive inverse pairs in Z10.

Solution:

The six pairs of additive inverses are:

(0, 0), (1, 9), (2, 8), (3, 7), (4, 6), and (5, 5).

Slide-41 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
⮚ In Zn, two numbers a and b are the multiplicative inverse of each
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

other if

⮚ In modular arithmetic, an integer may or may not have a

multiplicative inverse.
⮚ When it does, the product of the integer and its multiplicative
inverse is congruent to 1 modulo n.

Example:
Find the multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z10.

Solution:
⮚ There is no multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z10 because gcd
(10, 8) = 2 ≠ 1.
⮚ In other words, we cannot find any number between 0 and 9 such
that when multiplied by 8, the result is congruent to 1.
Slide-42 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find all multiplicative inverses in Z10.

Solution:
There are only three pairs: (1, 1), (3, 7) and (9, 9). The numbers 0, 2,
4, 5, 6, and 8 do not have a multiplicative inverse.

Example:
Find all multiplicative inverse pairs in Z11.

Solution:
We have seven pairs: (1, 1), (2, 6), (3, 4), (5, 9), (7, 8), (9, 5), and
(10, 10).

Slide-43 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
Multiplicative Inverse Using Extended Euclidean Algorithm:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ The extended Euclidean algorithm finds the multiplicative

inverses of b in Zn when n and b are given and gcd (n, b) = 1.
⮚ The multiplicative inverse of b is the value of t after being
mapped to Zn.

Figure: To find multiplicative inverse using extended Euclidean algorithm

Slide-44 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
Example-1:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find the multiplicative inverse of 11 in Z26 using extended Euclidean

algorithm.

Solution:

The gcd (26, 11) is 1; the inverse of 11 is -7 or 19.

Slide-45 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
Example-2:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find the multiplicative inverse of 23 in Z100 using extended Euclidean

algorithm

Solution:

The gcd (100, 23) is 1; the inverse of 23 is -13 or 87.

Slide-46 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
Example-3:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Find the inverse of 12 in Z26 using extended Euclidean algorithm.

Solution:

The gcd (26, 12) is 2; the inverse does not exist.

Slide-47 IIT, JU
 Modular Arithmetic: Multiplicative Inverse
Multiplicative Inverse Using Fermat’s Little Theorem:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ If the modulus is a prime, then multiplicative inverse of an

integer can be found quickly without using the Extended
Euclidean’s algorithm:
❑ If p is a prime and a is an integer such that p does not divide a (p†a),
then

a-1 mod p = ap-2 mod p

Example:
Find the multiplicative inverse of 8 in Z17 using Fermat’s Little
Theorem.

Solution:
Since, the modulus 17 is a prime, so according to Fermat’s Little theorem,

8-1 mod 17 = 817-2 mod 17 = 815 mod 17 = 15

Slide-48 IIT, JU
 Set of Additive and Multiplicative Inverse
Set of Additive Inverse Zn :
⮚ Zn is a set that contains all integers from 0 to n-1.
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ In Zn , each integer has an additive inverse. Therefore Zn can also

be used as the set of additive inverse.
⮚ Each member of Zn has an additive inverse.

Set of Multiplicative Inverse Zn* :

⮚ In Zn, an integer may or may not have a multiplicative inverse.
Only some members of Zn have a multiplicative inverse.

⮚ Therefore, for multiplication operation, we need another set Z n*

which is a subset of Zn that includes only those integers from Zn
that have a unique multiplicative inverse.
Note:
⮚ Each member of Zn has an additive inverse, but only some members of Z n
have a multiplicative inverse.

⮚ On the other hand, Each member of Zn* has a multiplicative inverse, but only
some members of Zn* have an additive inverse.
Slide-49 IIT, JU
 Set of Additive and Multiplicative Inverse
Finding the number of elements in Zn :
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ Zn is a set that contains all integers from 0 to n-1.

Finding the number of elements in Zn* :

⮚ We can determine the number of elements in the set Zn* using
Euler’s Phi-Function (sometimes called the Euler’s Totient
function), Φ(n) that finds the number of integers that are both
smaller than n and relatively prime to n.
⮚ The following rules helps to find the value of Φ(n):

Slide-50 IIT, JU
 Set of Additive and Multiplicative Inverse
Example-1:
Find the number of elements in Z13* using Euler’s Phi-Function.
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Solution:
Since 13 is a prime, so according to the second rule,

Φ(13)=(13-1)=12
Example-2:
Find the number of elements in Z10* using Euler’s Phi-Function.

Solution:
Since 10 is not a prime, so according to the third rule,

Φ(10)= Φ(5x2)= Φ(2) x Φ(5)=(2-1) x (5-1)= 1 x 4 =4

Example-3:
Find the number of elements in Z49* using Euler’s Phi-Function.

Solution:
Since 49 is not a prime and it can not be factored as the product of two
relatively primes, so according to the fourth rule,

Slide-51 Φ(49)= Φ(72)= 72 – 72-1= 49 – 7 = 42 IIT, JU

 Additive and Multiplicative Inverse Using Multiplication Tables
⮚ Zn and Zn* can be made from addition and multiplication tables
respectively.
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ We need to use Zn when additive inverses are needed; we need

to use Zn* when multiplicative inverses are needed.

Figure: Addition and multiplication table for Z10

Slide-52 IIT, JU
 Set of Additive and Multiplicative Inverse
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Some Instances of Zn and Zn*

Figure: Some Zn and Zn* sets

Slide-53 IIT, JU
 Set of Additive and Multiplicative Inverse
Two More Sets: Zp and Zp* :
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ Cryptography often uses two more sets: Zp and Zp*. The modulus
in these two sets is a prime number.

⮚ The set Zp is the same as Zn except that n is a prime.

⮚ Zp contains all integers from 0 to p-1.
⮚ Each member in Zp has an additive inverse; each member except
0 has a multiplicative inverse.

⮚ The set Zp* is the same as Zn* except that n is a prime.

⮚ Zp* contains all integers from 1 to p-1.
⮚ Each member in Zp* has an additive and a multiplicative inverse.
⮚ Zp* is a very good candidate when we need a set that supports
both additive and multiplicative inverse.

Slide-54 Figure: The set Zp and Zp* when p=13

IIT, JU
 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

In cryptography we need to handle matrices. Although

this topic belongs to a special branch of algebra called
linear algebra, the following brief review of matrices is
necessary preparation for the study of cryptography.

Topics discussed in this section:

Definitions
Operations and Relations
Determinants
Residue Matrices

Slide-55 IIT, JU
 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ A matrix is a rectangular array of l×m elements, in which l is

the number of rows and m is the number of columns.
⮚ It is normally denoted with a boldface uppercase letter such
as A.
⮚ The element aij is located in the ith row and jth column.

Figure: A matrix of size l ×

Slide-56 m IIT, JU
 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Example of Matrices:

⮚ Row matrix:
If a matrix has only one row (l), then it is called a row matrix.

⮚ Column matrix:
If a matrix has only one column (m), then it is called a
column matrix.

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 Matrices
Example of Matrices:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

⮚ Square matrix:
If a matrix has same number of rows and columns (l = m), then it is called
a square matrix. In a square matrix, the elements a11, a22, ….. ,amm make
the main diagonal.
⮚ Additive Identity matrix:
It is a kind of matrix with all rows and columns set to 0’s. It is denoted as
O.
⮚ Identity matrix:
It is a kind of square matrix with 1’s on the main diagonal and 0’s
elsewhere. It is denoted as I.

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 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Operations and Relations in

Matrices:
In linear algebra, one relation (equality) and four operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and scalar multiplication) are defined for matrices.

Equality:
Two matrices are equal if they have the same number of rows and columns and
the corresponding elements are equal. In other words, A = B if we have aij = Bij
for all i’s and j’s.

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 Matrices

Addition and Subtraction:

Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Two matrices can be added if they have the same number of rows and columns.
The resulting matrix has also the same number of rows and columns, e.g. A + B =
C.

Example:

Figure: Addition and subtraction of matrices

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 Matrices

Multiplication:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Two matrices can be multiplied if the number of columns of the first matrix is the
same as the number of rows of the second matrix. If A is an l×m matrix and B is
an m×p matrix, then their product is a matrix C of size l×p.

Example: Figure 2.21 shows the product of a row matrix (1 × 3) by a

column matrix (3 × 1). The result is a matrix of size 1 × 1.

Figure: Multiplication of a row matrix by a column matrix

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 Matrices
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure 2.22 shows the product of a 2 × 3 matrix by a

3 × 4 matrix. The result is a 2 × 4 matrix.

Figure: Multiplication of a 2 × 3 matrix by a 3 × 4 matrix

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 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Scalar Multiplication:
We can multiply a matrix by a number (called a scalar). If A is an l×m matrix and
x is a scalar, then C = xA is a matrix of size l×m.

Example: Figure below shows an example of scalar multiplication.

Figure: Scalar multiplication

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 Matrices
Transpose of a Matrix:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

A matrix which is formed by turning all the rows of a given matrix into
columns and vice-versa is called the transpose of the original matrix. The
transpose of matrix A is written AT.

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 Matrices
Determinant
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

The determinant of a square matrix A of size m × m denoted as det (A) is a

scalar calculated recursively as shown below:

The determinant is defined only for a

square matrix.
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 Matrices
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure below shows how we can calculate the determinant of

a 2 × 2 matrix based on the determinant of a 1 × 1 matrix.

Figure: Calculating the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix

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 Matrices
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Figure below shows the calculation of the determinant

of a 3 × 3 matrix.

Figure: Calculating the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix

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 Matrices
More Example
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Calculate the determinant of the following matrix.

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Matrices
Cofactor Matrix of a Given Matrix

IIT, JU
 Matrices
Adjoint of a Given Matrix
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

The matrix formed by taking the transpose of the cofactor matrix of a

given original matrix is called the adjoint of the given matrix. The
adjoint of matrix A is often written adj A.

Finally the adjoint of A is

the transpose of the
cofactor matrix:

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 Matrices
Inverse of Matrix
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

For an n×n square matrix A, the inverse of A (written as

A-1) is another n×n square matrix such that when A is
multiplied by A-1 the result is an n×n identity matrix I. Not
all n×n matrices are invertible. Non-square matrices do
not have inverses.
AA-1 = A-1A = I

⮚ A matrix which is not invertible is sometimes called a

singular matrix.

⮚ An invertible matrix is called a nonsingular matrix.

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Slide-72
Examples
Matrices

IIT, JU
 Matrices
Determining the Inverse of Matrix
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

When A is a 2×2 Matrix:

Example-1:

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Matrices

Example-2:
When A is a 2×2 Matrix:

IIT, JU
 Matrices
When A is an m×m Matrix:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

To find the inverse of an m×m matrix, follow the steps given below:

1. Find the adjoint of the given matrix.

2. Find the determinant of the given matrix.

3. Now, determine the inverse using the above formula.

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 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Solution:
The adjoint of A is :

The determinant of A is :

The inverse of A is :

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 Matrices
Additive & Multiplicative Inverse of Matrix
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Matrices have both additive and multiplicative inverses.

Additive Inverse of a
Matrix:
The additive inverse of a matrix A is another matrix B such that A + B = 0. In
other words, we have aij = - bij for all values of i and j. Normally the additive
inverse of A is denoted by –A.

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 Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Multiplicative Inverse of a
Matrix:
The multiplicative inverse of a square matrix A is another square matrix B
such that A × B = B × A = I. Normally the multiplicative inverse of A is
denoted by A-1.
The multiplicative inverse exists only if the det(A) has a multiplicative inverse
in the corresponding set.

Multiplicative inverses are only defined

for square matrices.

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 Matrices
Residue Matrices
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Cryptography uses residue matrices: matrices where all elements are in

Zn. A residue matrix has a multiplicative inverse if gcd (det(A), n) = 1.

Example:

Figure: A residue matrix and its multiplicative inverse

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 Linear Congruence
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Cryptography often involves solving an equation or a

set of equations of one or more variables with
coefficient in Zn. This section shows how to solve
equations when the power of each variable is 1 (linear
equation).

Topics discussed in this section:

❑ Single-Variable Linear Equations
❑ Set of Linear Equations

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 Linear Congruence
Single-Variable Linear Equations
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Equations of the form ax ≡ b (mod n ) is a single

variable linear equation. This type of equation might
have no solution or a limited number of solutions.

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 Linear Congruence
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

If d|b, we use the following strategy to find the

solution to a single-variable linear equation:
1. Reduce the equation by dividing both sides of the equation
(including the modulus) by d where d = gcd (a, n).

2. Multiply both sides of the reduced equation by the

multiplicative inverse of a to find the particular solution x0.

3. The general solutions are x = x0 + k(n/d) for k = 0, 1, …..(d-1).

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 Linear Congruence
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Solve the equation 10 x ≡ 2(mod 15).

Solution
First we find the gcd (10 and 15) = 5. Since 5 does not divide
2, we have no solution.

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 Linear Congruence
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Solve the equation 14 x ≡ 12 (mod 18).

Solution
First we find the gcd (14 and 18) = 2. Since 2 divides 12, we have
exactly two solutions.

⮚ Here 4 is the multiplicative inverse of 7 in Z9. That is, if we

multiply 4 and 7 and then divide the result by 9, we get 1 as
the remainder.
⮚ Both solutions 6 and 15 satisfy the congruence relation,
because (14×6) mod 18 = 12 and also (14×15) mod 18 = 12.
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 Linear Congruence
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Solve the equation 3x + 4 ≡ 6 (mod 13).

Solution
⮚ First we change the equation to the form ax ≡ b (mod n).

⮚ We add −4 (the additive inverse of 4) to both sides, which give

3x ≡ 2 (mod 13).

⮚ Because gcd (3, 13) = 1, the equation has only one solution,
which is:
x0 = (2 × 3−1) mod 13 = (2×9) mod 13 = 18 mod 13 = 5.

Here 9 is the multiplicative inverse of 3 in Z13. We can see that

the answer satisfies the original equation:
Slide-85 3 × 5 + 4 ≡ 6 (mod 13). IIT, JU
 Linear Congruence
Set of Multiple-Variable Linear Equations
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

We can also solve a set of linear equations with the same modulus if the
matrix formed from the coefficients of the variables is invertible.
To solve, we make three matrices:
⮚ The first is the square matrix made
Figure : Set of linear equations
from the coefficients of the variables.

⮚ The second is a column matrix made

from the variables.

⮚ The third is a column matrix made from

the values at the right-hand side of the
congruence operator.
3rd matrix Multiplicative inverse of the first matrix
1st matrix 2nd matrix

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 Linear Congruence
Example:
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

Solve the set of following three equations:

Solution

At first, we form a matrix from the coefficients of variables of the

equations. The matrix is invertible.
Now, we determine the multiplicative inverse of the matrix.

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 Linear Congruence
Prepared by: K M Akkas Ali, Associate Professor, IIT, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka

The result is
x ≡ 15 (mod 16)
y ≡ 4 (mod 16)
z ≡ 14 (mod 16)

We can check the answer by inserting these values into the

equations.

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