FLUIDIZATION

Textbook:
Fluid flow through a packed bed of particle
PRESSURE DROP–FLOW RELATIONSHIP
Laminar Flow
•In the nineteenth century Darcy (1856) observed that the flow of water through a
packed bed of sand was governed by the relationship:

•where U is the superficial fluid velocity through the bed and (-Δp) is the
fictional pressure drop across a bed depth H. (Superficial velocity = fluid
volumetric flow rate/cross-sectional area of bed, Q/A.)
•The flow of a fluid through a packed bed of solid particles may be analysed in
terms of the fluid flow through tubes. The starting point is the Hagen–Poiseuille
equation for laminar flow through a tube:

where D is the tube diameter and μ is the fluid viscosity.

• Consider the packed bed to be equivalent to many tubes of equivalent diameter De
following tortuous paths of equivalent length He and carrying fluid with a velocity
Ui. Then, from Equation (6.2),

Ui is the actual velocity of fluid through the interstices of the packed bed and is
related to superficial fluid velocity by:
Ui=U/ε (6.4)
Where ε is the voidage or void fraction of the packed bed.
• Although the paths of the tubes are tortuous, we can assume that their actual length
is proportional to the bed depth, that is,
He= K2H (6.5)
• The tube equivalent diameter is defined as
where flow area = ε A, where A is the cross-sectional area of the vessel holding
•the bed; wetted perimeter = SBA, where SB is the particle surface area per unit volume
of the bed. That may be demonstrated by comparison with pipe flow:
•Total particle surface area in the bed = SBAH For a pipe,
laminar flow through randomly packed particles. The constant K3 depends on
particle shape and surface properties and has been found by experiment to
have a value of about 5.
Taking K3 = 5, for laminar flow through a randomly packed bed of mono-sized
spheres of diameter x (for which S = 6/x) the Carman–Kozeny equation
becomes:

This is the most common form in which the Carman–Kozeny equation is

quoted.
Turbulent Flow
•For turbulent flow through a randomly packed bed of mono-sized spheres of
diameter x, the equivalent equation is:

General Equation for Turbulent and Laminar Flow

•Based on extensive experimental data covering a wide range of size and shape
of particles, Ergun (1952) suggested the following general equation for any
flow conditions:
• This is known as the Ergun equation for flow through a randomly packed bed
of spherical particles of diameter x. Ergun’s equation additively combines the
laminar and turbulent components of the pressure gradient.
• In laminar flow the pressure gradient increases linearly with superficial fluid
velocity and independent of fluid density. Under turbulent flow conditions,
the second term dominates; the pressure gradient increases as the square of
superficial fluid velocity and is independent of fluid viscosity.
• In terms of the Reynolds number defined in Equation (6.12), fully laminar
condition exist for Re* less than about 10 and fully turbulent flow exists at
Reynolds numbers greater than around 2000.
• In practice, the Ergun equation is often used to predict packed bed pressure
gradient over the entire range of flow conditions.
• Ergun also expressed flow through a packed bed in terms of a friction factor
defined in Equation (6.13):

• (Compare the form of this friction factor with the familiar Fanning friction
factor for flow through pipes.) Equation (6.11) then becomes
 Non-spherical Particles
• The Ergun and Carman–Kozeny
equations also accommodate non-
spherical particles if x is replaced
by xsv the diameter of a sphere
having the same surface to volume
ratio as the non-spherical particles
in question.
• Use of xsv gives the correct value
of specific surface S (surface area
of particles per unit volume of
particles). The relevance of this
will be apparent if Equation (6.8)
is recalled.
Fundamentals of Fluidization
 Fundamentals of Fluidization
• When a fluid is passed upwards through a bed of particles, the pressure loss
in the fluid due to frictional resistance increases with increasing fluid flow.
• A point is reached when the upward drag force exerted by the fluid on the
particles is equal to the apparent weight of particles in the bed.
• At this point the particles are lifted by the fluid, the separation of the particles
increases, and the bed becomes fluidized.
• The force balance across the fluidized bed dictates that the fluid pressure loss
across the bed of particles is equal to the apparent weight of the particles per
unit area of the bed. Thus:
• For a bed of particles of density ρ p, fluidized by a fluid of density ρ f to form
a bed of depth H and voidage ε in a vessel of cross-sectional area A:

• A plot of fluid pressure loss across the bed versus superficial fluid velocity
through the bed would have the appearance of Figure 7.1. Referring to
Figure 7.1, the straight line region OA is the packed bed region. Here the
solid particles do not move relative to one another and their separation is
constant.
Figure 7.1 Pressure drop versus fluid velocity for packed and fluidized beds
• The region BC is the fluidized bed region where Equation (7.1) applies. At
point A it will be noticed that the pressure loss rises above the value
predicted by Equation (7.1). This rise is more marked in small vessels and in
powders which have been compacted to some extent before the test and is
associated with the extra force required to overcome wall friction and
adhesive forces between bed and the distributor.
• The superficial fluid velocity at which the packed bed becomes a fluidized
bed is known as the minimum fluidization velocity, U mf. This is also
sometimes referred to as the velocity at incipient fluidization (incipient
meaning beginning).
• Umf increases with particle size and particle density and is affected by fluid
properties.
• It is possible to derive an expression for Umf by equating the expression for
pressure loss in a fluidized bed [Equation (7.2)] with the expression for
pressure loss across a packed bed. Thus recalling the Ergun equation
[Equation (6.11)]:
RELEVANT POWDER AND PARTICLE PROPERTIES
• The correct density for use in fluidization equations is the particle density,
defined as the mass of a particle divided by its hydrodynamic volume. This
is the volume ’seen‘ by the fluid in its fluid dynamic interaction with the
particle and includes the volume of all the open and closed pores (see Figure
7.2):
• For non-porous solids, this is easily measured by a gas pycnometer or specific
gravity bottle, but these devices should not be used for porous solids since
they give the true or absolute density rabs of the material of which the particle
is made and this is not appropriate where interaction with fluid flow is
concerned:

• For porous particles, the particle density ρ p (also called apparent or envelope
density) is not easy to measure directly although several methods are given in
Geldart (1990). Bed density is another term used in connection with fluidized
beds; bed density is defined as
• For example, 600 kg of powder is fluidized in a vessel of cross-sectional area
1m2 and achieves a bed height of 0.5 m. What is the bed density?
Solution
Mass of particles in the bed = 600 kg
Volume occupied by particles and voids = 1 x 0.5 = 0.5m3
Hence, bed density = 600/0.5 = 1200 kg/m3.
• If the particle density of these solids is 2700 kg/m3, what is the bed voidage?
Bed density ρB is related to particle density ρp and bed voidage ε by Equation
(7.12):
• Another density often used when dealing with powders is the bulk density. It
is defined in a similar way to fluid bed density:

• The most appropriate particle size to use in equations relating to fluid–

particle interactions is a hydrodynamic diameter, i.e. an equivalent sphere
diameter derived from a measurement technique involving hydrodynamic
interaction between the particle and fluid.
• In practice, however, in most industrial applications sizing is done using
sieving and correlations use either sieve diameter, x p or volume diameter, xv:
For spherical or near spherical particles x v is equal to xp: For angular
particles, xv ≈ 1.13xp:
• For use in fluidization applications, starting from a sieve analysis the mean
size of the powder is often calculated from

where xi is the arithmetic mean of adjacent sieves between which a mass

fraction mi is collected. This is the harmonic mean of the mass distribution,
which was shown in Chapter 1 to be equivalent to the arithmetic mean of a
surface distribution.
• Knowledge of the bed voidage allows calculation of the fluidized bed height
as illustrated below:

• If packed bed depth (H1) and voidage (ε1) are known, then if the mass
remains constant the bed depth at any voidage can be determined:
 Non-bubbling Fluidization
• In a non-bubbling fluidized bed beyond U mf the particle separation increases
with increasing fluid superficial velocity whilst the pressure loss across the
bed remains constant. This increase in bed voidage with fluidizing velocity is
referred to as bed expansion (see Figure 7.4).
• The relationship between fluid velocity and bed voidage may be determined
by recalling the analysis of multiple particle systems (Chapter 3).
• For a particle suspension settling in a fluid under force balance conditions
the relative velocity Urel between particles and fluid is given by:
 Heat and mass transfer in fluidized beds
• The transfer of heat between fluidized solids, gas and internal surfaces of
equipment is very good. This makes for uniform temperatures and ease of control
of bed temperature.
Gas–Particle Heat Transfer
• Gas to particle heat transfer coefficients are typically small, of the order of 5–
20Wm2K. However, because of the very large heat transfer surface area provided
by a mass of small particles (1m3 of 100 mm particles has a surface area of 60
000m2), the heat transfer between gas and particles is rarely limiting in fluid bed
heat transfer. One of the most commonly used correlations for gas–particle heat
transfer coefficient is that of Kunii and Levenspiel (1969):

• where Nu is the Nusselt number and the single particle Reynolds

• number is based on the relative velocity between fluid and particle as usual.
• Gas–particle heat transfer is relevant where a hot fluidized bed is fluidized
by cold gas. The fact that particle–gas heat transfer presents little resistance
in bubbling fluidized beds can be demonstrated by the following example:
• Consider a fluidized bed of solids held at a constant temperature T s. Hot
fluidizing gas at temperature Tg0 enters the bed. At what distance above the
distributor is the difference between the inlet gas temperature and the bed
solids temperature reduced to half its original value?
• Consider an element of the bed of height at a distance L above the
distributor (Figure 7.13). Let the temperature of the gas entering this
element be Tg and the change in gas temperature across the element be
• The particle temperature in the element is Ts:
• The energy balance across the element gives rate of heat loss by the gas =
rate of heat transfer to the solids that is

• where a is the surface area of solids per unit volume of bed, C g is the specific
heat capacity of the gas, ρp is particle density, hgp is the particle-to-gas heat
transfer coefficient and U is superficial gas velocity.
• Integrating with the boundary condition Tg = Tg0 at L = 0,

• The distance over which the temperature difference is reduced to half its
initial value, L0.5, is then
• For a bed of spherical particles of diameter x, the surface area per unit
volume of bed, where e is the bed voidage.
• Using the correlation for hgp in Equation (7.47), then
 APPLICATIONS OF FLUIDIZED BEDS
Physical Processes
•Physical processes which use fluidized beds include drying, mixing,
granulation, coating, heating and cooling. All these processes take advantage of
the excellent mixing capabilities of the fluid bed.
•Good solids mixing gives rise to good heat transfer, temperature uniformity
and ease of process control. One of the most important applications of the
fluidized bed is to the drying of solids.
•Fluidized beds are currently used commercially for drying such materials as
crushed minerals, sand, polymers, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers and crystalline
products. The reasons for the popularity of fluidized bed drying are:
• The dryers are compact, simple in construction and of relatively low capital
cost.
• The absence of moving parts, other than the feeding and discharge devices,
leads to reliable operation and low maintenance.
• The thermal efficiency of these dryers is relatively high.
• Fluidized bed dryers are gentle in the handling of powders and this is
useful when dealing with friable materials
Chemical Processes
The gas fluidized bed is a good medium in which to carry out a chemical
reaction involving a gas and a solid. Advantages of the fluidized bed for
chemical reaction include:
• The gas–solid contacting is generally good.
• The excellent solids circulation within the bed promotes good heat transfer
between bed particles and the fluidizing gas and between the bed and heat
transfer surfaces immersed in the bed.
•This gives rise to near isothermal conditions even when reactions are
strongly exothermic or endothermic.
• The good heat transfer also gives rise to ease of control of the reaction.
• The fluidity of the bed makes for ease of removal of solids from the reactor.
• However, it is far from ideal; the main problems arise from the two
phase (bubbles and fluidized solids) nature of such systems.
• This problem is particularly acute where the bed solids are the catalyst
for a gas-phase reaction.
• In such a case the ideal fluidized bed chemical reactor would have
excellent gas–solid contacting, no gas by-passing and no back-mixing
of the gas against the main direction of flow.