Module-3

Traffic Design and Visual Aids

Intersection Design- Channelization, Rotary
intersection design, Signal design, Coordination of
signals, Grade separation, Traffic signs including VMS
and road markings, Significant roles of traffic control
personnel, Networking pedestrian facilities & cycle
tracks.
 Traffic island
A small raised area in the middle of a road which
provides a safe place for pedestrians to stand and
marks a division between two opposing streams of
traffic.
(or)
A traffic island is a solid or painted object in a road
that channelizes traffic. It can also be a narrow strip of
island between roads that intersect at an acute angle.
If the island uses road markings only, without raised
kerbs or other physical obstructions, it is called a
painted island. Traffic islands can be used to reduce
the speed of vehicles driving through.
 Types of Traffic islands
• Divisional Islands: Divisional islands are dividing the
highway in two one way road way so that head on
collision are eliminated and accidents are reduced.
• Channelizing Islands: Channelizing islands guide the
traffic into proper channel through the intersection
area.
• Pedestrian loading Islands: They are provided at
regular bus stops and similar laces for the protection
of passengers.
• Rotary Islands: Rotary islands is the large central
island of a rotary intersection.
 Divisional Islands Channelizing Islands

Pedestrian loading Islands Rotary Islands

 Rotary Islands
Rotary intersections or round
abuts are special form of at
grade intersections laid out for
the movement of traffic in one
direction around a central
traffic island.
The vehicles entering the
rotary are gently forced to
move in a clockwise direction
in orderly fashion.
 Intersection of road
• Intersection is an area shared by two or more roads.
•This area is designated for the vehicles to turn to
different directions to reach their desired destinations.
•This is because vehicles moving in different direction
want to occupy same space at the same time.
Types
There are two main types of intersection of roads:
1. Grade – separated intersections or interchanges.
2. At – grade intersections.
Grade separated intersection or interchanges
It is a bridge that eliminates crossing conflicts at
intersections by vertical separation of roadways in
space.
Route transfer at grade separations is accommodated
by interchange facilities consisting of ramps.
The interchange configurations are designed in such a
way to accommodate economically the traffic
requirements of flow, operation on the crossing
facilities, physical requirements of the topography,
adjoining land use, type of controls, right-of-way and
direction of movements.
 Grade separated intersection or interchanges
Objective:
The ultimate objective of grade separated intersections
is to eliminate all grade crossing conflicts and to
accommodate other intersecting manoeuvres by
merging, diverging and weaving at low relative seed.
Classification of Grade Separated Intersection
One of the distinctions made in type of interchange is
between the directional and the non directional.
• Directional interchanges are those having ramps that
tend to follow the natural direction of movement.
• Non directional interchanges require a change in the
natural path of traffic flow.
 Major Interchanges
• Underpass
• Overpass
• Trumpet Interchange
• Diamond Interchange
• Cloverleaf Interchange
• Partial cloverleaf Interchange
• Directional Interchange
• Bridged Rotary
Underpass
An underpass or a tunnel is an underground
passageway, completely enclosed expect for openings
for ingress and egress, commonly at each end. A
tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail
traffic.
Overpass
An overpass also known as a flyover, is a bridge, road,
railway or similar structure that crosses over another
road or railway. A pedestrian overpass allows
pedestrians safe crossing over busy without impacting
traffic.
Trumpet interchanges
Trumpet interchanges have been used where one highway
terminates at another highway. These involve at least one
loop ramp connecting traffic either entering or leaving the
terminating expressway with the far lanes of the continuous
highway. The principal advantages are low construction cost
and are useful for highways as well as toll roads.
Diamond interchange
A diamond interchange is a common type of road junction,
used where a freeway crosses a minor road. The diamond
interchange uses less space than most types of freeway
interchange, and avoids the interweaving traffic flows that
occur in interchanges such as the cloverleaf. Diamond
interchanges are most effective in areas where traffic is light.
Cloverleaf interchange
A cloverleaf interchange is a two-level interchange in which
left turns are handled by ramp roads. To go left (in right-hand
traffic), vehicles first continue as one road passes over or
under the other, then exit right onto a one-way three-fourths
loop ramp (270) and merge onto the intersecting road.
Partial cloverleaf interchange
Partial clover leaf is a modification that combines some
elements of a diamond interchange with one or more loops
of a cloverleaf to eliminate only the more critical turning
conflicts. It provides more acceleration and deceleration
space on the freeway.
Directional interchange
A Directional interchange provides direct for left turns. These
interchanges contain ramps for one or more direct or semi
direct left turning movements. Interchanges of two freeways
or interchanges with one or more very heavy turning
movements usually warrant direct ramps, which have higher
speeds of operation and higher capacities, compared to loop
ramps.
At grade intersections
At-grade intersections in which all the exchanges
between the roads take place on the same plane.
These are of two types
• Standard at-grade intersections
• Round about at-grade intersections
Key elements of intersection of road
Different types of at grade intersections
Simple intersections
Simple intersections maintain the street’s typical cross section
and number of lanes throughout the intersection, on both the
major and minor streets. Simple intersections are best-suited
to locations where auxiliary (turning) lanes are not needed to
achieve the desired level-of-service
Flared intersections
Flared intersections expand the cross-section of the street.
The flaring is often done to accommodate a left-turn lane, so
that left-turning bicycles and motor vehicles are removed
from the through-traffic stream to increase capacity at high-
volume locations, and safety on higher speed streets. Right
turn lanes, less frequently used than left-turn lanes, are
usually a response to large volumes of right turns.
Channelized intersections
Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite
paths by islands, marking etc. and this method of control is
called channelization. Channelized intersection provides more
safety and efficiency. It reduces the number of possible
conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available in the
carriageway. If no channelizing is provided the driver will have
less tendency to reduce the speed while entering the
intersection from the carriageway.
Roundabout intersections
A roundabout is a type of circular intersection or junction in
which road traffic flows almost continuously in one direction
around a central island. It provides maximum safety in all
types of intersections .
Road Markings
The road markings are defined as lines, patterns, words or
other devices, except signs, set into applied or attached to
the carriageway or kerbs or to objects within or adjacent to
the carriageway, for controlling, warning, guiding and
informing the users. The road markings are classified as
longitudinal markings, transverse markings, object markings,
word messages, marking for parking, marking at hazardous
locations etc.
Longitudinal markings
Longitudinal markings are placed along the direction of traffic
on the roadway surface, for the purpose of indicating to the
driver, his proper position on the roadway. Longitudinal
markings are provided for separating traffic flow in the same
direction and the predominant colour used is white. Yellow
colour is used to separate the traffic flow in opposite direction
and also to separate the pavement edges. The lines can be
either broken, solid or double solid
Center line
Center line separates the opposing streams of traffic and
facilitates their movements. Usually no center line is provided
for roads having width less than 5 m and for roads having
more than four lanes. The center line may be marked with
either single broken line, single solid line, double broken line,
or double solid line depending upon the road and traffic
requirements.
Traffic lane lines
The subdivision of wide carriageway into separate lanes on either
side of the carriage way helps the driver to go straight and also
curbs the meandering tendency of the driver. At intersections,
these traffic lane lines will eliminate confusion and facilitates
turning movements.
 Double solid line for a two lane road

Center barrier line marking for four lane road

Warning lines
Warning lines warn the drivers about the obstruction
approaches. They are marked on horizontal and vertical
curves where the visibility is greater than prohibitory criteria
specified for no overtaking zones. They are broken lines with 6
m length and 3 m gap. A minimum of seven line segments
should be provided.
Traffic Regulation

Various Traffic regulatory measures are:

1. Issue driving license- by checking age and conducting test
drive
2. Registration of Vehicles
3. Transfer of Ownership
4. Distinction between private and public vehicles
5. Transport authorities
6. Speed limit and Limits of Weight
7. Parking and halting Places
8. Insurance fees
9. Punishment of Violation and offences
 DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN TRAFFIC
SIGNAL DESIGN
1. The period of time required for one complete sequence of
signal indications is called ‘signal cycle’.
2. The part of the signal cycle time that is allocated to stop
the traffic or to allow traffic movement is called ‘signal
phase’
3. The duration of ‘stop’ phase is the red phase and
4. The duration of ‘go’ phase is the green phase.
5. The engineer has to design the signal with the sequence
and duration of individual phases to serve all approaching
traffic at a desired ‘level of service’.
 TYPES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS
The signals are classified into the following types:
1. Traffic control signals
2. Pedestrian signal
3. Special traffic signal
THE TRAFFIC CONTROL SIGNAL
The traffic control signals have three coloured lights which glow facing
each direction
of traffic flow namely, red, amber and green.
4. The red light is meant for ‘stop’,
5. The green light for ‘go’ and
6. The amber or yellow light allows the ‘clearance time’ for the vehicles
which enter the intersection area by the end of green time to clear
off the intersection, before the change-over to red signal light.
 APPROXIMATE METHOD BASED ON PEDESTRIAN CROSSING REQUIREMENT

The following design procedure is suggested for the approximate

design of a two phase traffic signal unit at cross roads, along with
pedestrian signals:
1. Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m per second and the
roadway width of each approach road, the minimum time for the
pedestrian to cross each road is also calculated.
2. Total pedestrian crossing time is taken as minimum pedestrian
crossing time plus initial interval for pedestrians to start crossing,
which should not be less than 7 sec and during this period when
the pedestrian will be crossing the road, the traffic signal shall
indicate red or ‘stop’.
3. The red signal time is also equal to the minimum green time plus
amber time for the traffic of the cross road.
4. The actual green time needed for the road with higher traffic is
then increased in proportion to the ratio of approach volumes of
5. Based on approach speeds of the vehicles, the
suitable clearance interval between green and red
period i.e., clearance amber periods are selected.
6. The amber periods may be taken as 2, 3 or 4
seconds for low, medium and fast approach speeds
7. The cycle length so obtained is adjusted for the
next higher 5 sec interval; the extra time is then
distributed to green timings in proportion to the
traffic volumes
8. The timings so obtained are installed in the
controller and the operations are then observed at
the site during peak traffic hours; modification in
signal timings are carried out if needed
 Example 1
An isolated traffic signal with pedestrian indication
is to be installed on a right angled intersection with
road A, 18 m wide and road B, 12 m wide. During
the peak our, traffic volume per hour per lane of
road A and road B are 275 and 225 respectively. The
approach speeds are 55 and 40 kmph, on roads A
and road B respectively. Assume pedestrian crossing
speed as 1.2 m per sec. Design the timings two-
phase traffic and pedestrian by the approximate
method.
 Methods of signal design
• Trial cycle method
• Approximate method
• Webster's method
• Design as per IRC guidelines
 Trial cycle method

• The 15 minute-traffic counts and on road 1 and 2 are noted during the
design peak hour flow.
• Some suitable trial cycle sec is assumed and the number of the assumed
cycles in the 15 minutes or 15 x 60 seconds period is found to be (15 x
60)/C1 i.e.(900/ C1)

• Assuming an average time headway of 2.5 sec, the green periods G1 and
G2 of roads 1 and 2 are calculated to clear the traffic during the trial
cycle.
• The amber periods A1and A2 are either calculated or assumed suitably
(3 to 4 seconds) and the trial cycle length; is calculated, C1'=
(G1+A1+A2)sec.
• If the calculated cycle length C1' works out to be approximately equal to
the assumed cycle length the cycle length is accepted as the design cycle.
• Otherwise the trials are repeated till the trial cycle length works out
approximately equal to the calculated value.
 Example 2
The 15-minute traffic counts on cross roads 1
and 2 during peak hour are observed as 178 and
142 vehicles per lane respectively approaching
the intersection in the direction of heavier traffic
flow. If the amber times required are 3 and 2
seconds respectively for the two loads based on
approach speeds, design the signal timings by
trial cycle method. Assume average time
headway as 2.5 seconds during green phase.
 WEBSTER’S METHOD OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
• It has been found from studies that the average delay and the overall
delay to the vehicles at a signalized intersection very with the signal cycle
length.
• The average delay per vehicle is high when the cycle length is very less, as
a sizable proportion of vehicles may not get cleared during the first cycle
and may spill over to subsequent cycles.
• As the signal cycle time is increased, the average delay per vehicle
decreases up to a certain minimum value and thereafter the delay starts
increasing, indicating that there is an ‘optimum signal cycle time’
corresponding to least overall delay.
• The optimum cycle time depends on the geometric details of the
intersection and the volume of traffic approaching the intersection from
all the approach roads during the design hour.
• Webster’s method of traffic signal design is an analytical approach of
determining the optimum signal cycle time, Co corresponding to minimum
total delay to all the vehicles at the approach roads of the intersection.
• The field work consists of determining the following two
sets of values on each approach road near the intersection:
(i) the normal flow, q on each approach during the design
hour and
(ii) the ‘saturation flow’, S per unit time
• The normal flow values, and on roads 1 and 2 are
determined from field studies conducted during the design
hour or the traffic during peak 15 – minutes period.
• The saturation flow of vehicles is determined from careful
field studies by noting the number of vehicles in the
stream of compact flow during the green phases and the
corresponding time intervals precisely.
• In the absence of data the approximate value of saturation
flow is estimated assuming 160 PCU per 0.3 meter width of
the approach road.
• Based on the selected values of normal flow, the ratio and
are determined on the approach roads 1 and 2.
• In the case of mixed traffic, it is necessary to covert the
different vehicle classes in terms of suitable PCU values at
signalized intersection;
• In case these are not available they may be determined
separately.
• The normal flow of traffic on the approach roads may also
be determined by conducting field studies during off –
peak hours to be design different sets of signal timings
during other periods of the day also, as required so as to
provide different signal settings.
• The optimum signal cycle is given by relation
 Example 3
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads
A and B during design period are 400 and 250
PCU per hour; the saturation flow values on
these roads are estimated as 1250 and 1000
PCU per hour respectively. The all-red time
required for pedestrian crossing is 12 sec. Design
two phase traffic signal with pedestrian crossing
by Webster’s method.
 DESIGN METHOD AS PER IRC GUIDELINES
• The pedestrian green time required for the major roads are
calculated based on walking speed of 1.2 m/sec and initial walk
time of 7.0 sec.
• These are the minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic
on the minor and major roads respectively.
• The green time required for the vehicular traffic on the major road
is increased in proportion to the traffic on the two approach roads.
• The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2.0 sec
each.
• The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving
during a cycle is determined for each lane of the approach road
assuming that the first vehicle will take 6.0 sec and the subsequent
vehicles or the PCU of the queue will be cleared at a rate of 2.0 sec.
• The minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on any
of the approaches is limited to 16 sec.
• The optimum signal cycle time is calculated using
Webster’s formula (explained in method, given above).
• The saturation flow values may be assumed as 1850,
1890, 1950, 2250, 2550 and 2990 PCU per hour for the
approach roadway widths (kerb to median or centre line)
of 3.0, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 m.
• For widths above 5.5 m, the saturation flow may be
assumed as 525 PCU per hour per meter width.
• The lost time is calculated from the amber time, inter-
green time and the initial delay of 4.0 sec for the first
vehicle, on each leg.
• The signal cycle time and the phases may be revised
keeping in view the green time required for clearing the
vehicles and the optimum cycle length determined it
steps above.
 Example 4
At a right angled intersection of two roads, Road 1
has four lanes with a total width of 12.0 m and Road
2 has two lanes with a total width of 6.6m. The
volume of traffic approaching the intersection during
design hour are 900 and 743 PCU/hour on the two
approaches of Road-1 and 278 and 180 PCU/hour on
the two approaches of Road-2. Design the signal
timings as per IRC guidelines.
 TRAFFIC REGULATION AND CONTROL
• In order to have safe traffic on roads, it is desirable
to impose adequate traffic regulations and traffic
control with the help of standard traffic control
devices.
• The traffic regulations and control are
implemented with the help of suitable regulatory
signs, signals, marking, traffic islands and other
devices.
Traffic regulations and laws cover the following
four phase.
• Driver controls
• Vehicle controls
• Traffic flow regulations
• General controls
 REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS ON DRIVERS
• As per the Motor Vehicle Act, the minimum age for getting a driving
license to drive a non-geared two-wheeler is 16 years and the
minimum age for driving a geared two-wheeler or a four wheeler is
18 years.
• Driving a motor vehicle without a valid driving license is an offence.
• Before the issue of driving license for a specified category of vehicle,
one has to undergo specified tests.
• The driver is expected to demonstrate his ability to drive the vehicle
safely and he should be conversant with the motor vehicle rules and
regulations.
• Separate requirements and tests have been specified for driving
different categories of motor vehicles such as two-wheeler
automobiles, light motor vehicles, public transport vehicles, heavy
commercial vehicles, etc.
• There are regulations prohibiting driving under the influence of
alcohol or ‘drunken driving’.
 REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS ON VEHICLES
• Regulations and controls on vehicles include vehicle registration,
requirements of equipment and accessories of motor vehicles,
maximum permissible dimensions and weight, vehicle fitness,
inspections, etc.
• The registration is essential for any new motor vehicle.
• The information about the details of the vehicle such as the type,
make, capacity of engine, manufacture’s serial number, details of the
owner, license plate number, etc. are registered in the transport
department and police records.
• There are different specifications for public transport vehicles, hired
vehicles and private vehicles for displaying the registration number. For
example private vehicles have to display the registration numbers of
specified size letters and numerals written in black colour on plate with
white back-ground.
• The specified colour of the registration plate is yellow for public
transport vehicles including hired vehicles.
 GENERAL REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS
Some other general regulations and provisions are
made. They include reporting of accidents, recording
and disposing traffic violation cases, etc.

IMPLEMENTATION OF REGULATIONS
The traffic regulations have been enacted and implemented
in India with the help of the Motor Vehicle Act of 1939, The
revised Motor Vehicle Act of 1988.
 Significant roles of traffic control personnel
• It is important for the safety of drivers and also for the pedestrians
crossing the road.
• At a particular intersection, it ensures the order of the traffic
movement.
• It reduces the number of fatalities and misfortunes.
• Helps in diverting traffic from one route to another while keeping
the dangers of movement of large numbers of vehicles in mind.
• Keeps all the potential danger and hazardous points of the roads
under control.
• It controls and manages traffic at the places where bottlenecks
occur due to unplanned entry and exit of vehicles.
• It is important for the safety of the personnel working in the
construction and road maintenance sites.