Physics class XI

Chapter 9: Optics
 Optics basics
 The term optics refers to the science of light.
 Light consists of energy carrier photons guided by the rules of EM waves.
 Maximum speed of light is in vacuum with value 299792458 m/s which
approximates to 3 x 108 m/s
 Ray optics: A particular direction of propagation of energy from a source of
light is called a ray of light. Explains reflection, refraction, double refraction,
total internal reflection, etc.
 Wave optics: We consider light to be in the form of Electromagnetic Waves.
Explains interference, diffraction, polarization, Doppler effect, etc.
 Particle nature of light: Based on quantum nature of light. Light is
considered to be made up of particles. Involves interaction of light with
matter. Explains photoelectric effect, emissionOptics
of spectral lines, Compton
effect, etc.
Ray optics or Wave optics or Particle nature
geometrical optics physical optics of light
 Ray optics or geometrical optics
(Fundamental laws)
1. Light travels in a straight line in a homogenous and isotropic medium.
(Homogenous = properties of the medium are same every where. isotropic =
properties are the same in all directions.)
2. Two or more rays can intersect at a point without affecting their paths beyond that
point.
3. Laws of reflection: (a) Reflected ray lies in the plane formed by incident ray and the
normal drawn at the point of incidence; and the two rays are on either side of the
normal.
(b) Angles of incidence and reflection are equal.
4. Laws of refraction: (a) Refracted ray lies in the plane formed by incident ray and
the normal drawn at the point of incidence; and the two rays are on either side of
the normal.
(b) Angle of incidence (θ1 in a medium of refractive index n1) and angle of refraction
(θ2 in a medium of refractive index n2) are related by Snell’s law, given by (n1)sin θ1
= (n2)sin θ2
 Cartesian sign convention
1. All distances are measured from the optical center or pole. For most
of the optical objects such as spherical mirrors, thin lenses, etc., the
optical centers coincides with their geometrical centers.
2. Figures should be drawn in such a way that the incident rays travel
from left to right. A real object should be shown to the left of pole and
virtual object or image to the right of the pole.
3. X-axis is chosen as the principal axis with origin at the pole.
4. Distances to the left of the pole are negative and those to the right of
the pole are positive.
5. Distances above the principal axis are positive while those below it
are negative.
 Reflection from a plane surface
 If the object is in front of a plane reflecting surface, the image is
virtual and laterally inverted. It is of the same size as that of the
object and at the same distance as that of the object on the other
side of the reflecting surface.


 If an object is kept between two plane mirrors inclined at an angle θ,

number of images n, are formed due to multiple reflections from both
the mirrors. Exact number of images depends upon the angle
between the mirrors and where exactly the object is kept. It can be
calculated as follows n =
 120, 90, 72
Reflection from a plane surface
Let N be the number of images seen:
(a)If n is an even integer, N = (n-1) irrespective of where the
object is.
(b)If n is an odd integer and object is exactly on the angle
bisector, N = (n-1).
(c)If n is an odd integer and object is off the angle bisector, N = n.
(d)If n is not an integer, N = m, where m is integral part of m.
 Reflection from curved surfaces
(spherical mirrors)
 Examples: reflecting mirrors for a torch or headlights, rear view
mirrors of vehicles, mirrors for a search light, etc.
 Spherical mirrors are parts of a sphere polished from outside (convex)
or from inside (concave).

Convex Concave
mirror mirror

 Radius of curvature (R) of the mirror is equal to the radius of the

sphere of which a mirror is a part of.
 For spherical mirrors, focal length is equal to half of radius of
curvature. f =
 Focal length of a convex mirror is positive while that of a concave
mirror is negative.

Spherical mirrors
Relation between f, u and v: =
 Focal power: Converging or diverging ability of a lens or of a mirror is
defined as its focal power. It is measured as P = SI unit is dioptre
(D) 1 D = 1 m-1
 Lateral magnification: Ratio of linear size of image to that of the
object, measured perpendicular to that of the object, measured
perpendicular to the principal axis, is defined as the lateral
magnification m =
 For any position of the object, a convex mirror always forms virtual,
erect and diminished image, m < 1. In the case of a concave mirror it
depends upon the position of the object.
 Spherical mirrors
 Defects or aberration of images: Assumptions till now:
 (1) Objects and images are situated close to the principal axis.
 (2) Rays diverging from the objects are confined to a cone of very
small angle.
 (3) If there is a parallel beam of rays, it is paraxial, i.e., parallel and
close to the principal axis.
 (4) The mirror has small numerical aperture and it is thin.
 Commonly occurring defects are spherical aberration, coma,
astigmatism, curvature, distortion. Except spherical aberration, all the
other arise due to beams of rays inclined to the principal axis.
 Spherical aberration
 This phenomenon arises due to spherical shape of the reflecting
surface, hence the name spherical aberration.
 In spherical aberration, parallel light rays that bounce off the central
region of a spherical mirror focus farther away than light rays that
bounce of the edges. The result is many focal points, which produces
a blurry image.
 The distance between FM and FP is measured as the longitudinal
spherical aberration.
 Parabolic shape can remove spherical aberration because every point
on it is equidistant from a straight line and a point which solves the
problem.
 Spherical aberration
 For a beam of incident rays parallel to the axis, we get a single point
image on a screen placed perpendicular to the principal axis.
 In the presence of spherical aberration, the image is a circle.
 At a particular location of the screen, the diameter of this circle is
minimum. This is called the circle of least confusion.
 Radius of this circle is transverse spherical aberration.
 Surfaces of mirrors used in a search light, torch, headlight of a car,
telescopes, etc., are parabolic and not spherical.
 Refraction
 If a ray of light comes to an interface between two media and enters
into another medium of different refractive index, it changes itself
suitable to that medium.
 This phenomenon is defined as refraction of light. The extent to which
these properties change is decided by the index of refraction n.
 The properties of light like speed, wavelength, direction of
propagation, etc. depend upon the medium through which light is
traveling and hence change during refraction.
 While traveling from optically rarer medium to optically denser
medium, light bends towards the normal.
 While traveling from optically denser medium to optically rarer
medium, light bends away from the normal.
 Absolute refractive index

 Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of speed of

light in vacuum to that in given medium.
 n = n is a unitless and dimensionless physical quantity.
 For any material medium n > 1
 Medium having greater value of n is called optically denser.
 Relative refractive index
 Refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium 1 is defined as
the ratio of speed of light v1 in medium 1 to its speed v2 in medium 2.
 Illustrations of refraction

• When seen from outside, the bottom of a water body appears to

be raised. This is due to refraction at the plane surface of water.
• A point object O at real depth R appears to be at I at apparent
depth A, when seen from outside (air). By considering i and r to be
small, we can write tan (r) = = sin (r) and tan (i) = = sin (i)
• Therefore n = = = =
 Illustrations of refraction
 A stick or pencil kept obliquely in a glass containing water appears
broken as its part in water appears to be raised.
 Total internal reflection

 The complete reflection of a light ray reaching an interface with a less

dense medium when the angle of incidence exceeds the critical
angle.
 Critical angle for a pair of refracting media can be defined as that
angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of
refraction in the rarer medium is 90º
 sin (ic ) =
 Applications of total internal
reflection
(Optical fibre)

 An optical fibre essentially consists of an extremely thin, transparent,

flexible core surrounded by optically rarer, flexible cover called
cladding.
 This system is coated by a buffer and jacket for protection.
 An optical signal entering the core suffers multiple total internal
reflections and emerges after several kilometres with extremely low
loss travelling with highest possible speed in that material (~
 Advantages for optical fibre communication
 1) Broad bandwidth: For TV signals, a single optical fibre can carry
over 90000 channels.
 2) Immune to EM interface: Being electrically non-conductive, it is
immune to nearby EM signals.
 3) Low attenuation loss: The loss is lower than 0.2 dB/Km so that a
single long cable can be used for several kilometres.
 4) Electrical insulator: No issue with ground loops of metal wires or
lightning.
 5) Theft prevention: It does not use copper or other expensive
material.
 6) Security of information: Internal damage is mostly unlikely.
 Lens makers’ equation

 n1sin(i) = n2sin(r)  n1i = n2r

 i = α + β and r = β – γ  n1 (α + β) = n2(β – γ)
 sin(i) ≈ I and sin(r) ≈ r  (n2 - n1)β = n2γ + n1α
 α≈ =  (n2 - n1) = (n2) - (n1)
 β≈ =  = -
 Cγ ≈ =
Lens makers’ equation

 n2 = n, n1 = 1, R = R1, u = u, v = v1 R2


= -

= -
 Adding the two equations:
 (n – 1)( - ) = -
 For u = infinity, v = f
 = (n -1)( - )
Dispersion of light
Prism and its dispersion
 Relations between angles involved

 BC is the base. AB and AC are refracting surfaces.

 Angle of prism – A
 PQ – incident ray, QR – refracted ray and RS- emergent ray.
 MQN and M’RN are the normals.
 i = angle of incidence, r1 = angle of refraction, r2 = angle of refraction/angle of
incidence, e = angle of emergence.
 QT is the extended ray and δ = angle of deviation.
  AQN = ARN = 90º
 In quadrilateral AQNR,
A + QNR = 180º
---------(1)
 From QNR,
 r1 + r2 + QNR = 180º ---------
(2)
 From eqs. (1) and (2),
 A = r1 + r2
 ---------(3)
Angle is exterior angle for triangle XQR
XQR + XRQ =
(i – r1) + (e – r2) =
(i + e) - (r1 + r2) =
 Hence, using eq. (3), (i + e) – (A) =
i+e=A+ ----------(4)
Deviation curve, minimum deviation
and prism formula
 , e. r1 and r2 depends upon i, A and n.
 Emergent ray is possible only after a certain minimum value of
angle of incidence imin
 At = m we have i = e. Also, r1 = r2 and A = r1 + r2 = 2r.
 r=
 From eq. (4), we get, i + i = A + m

 i=
 According to Snell’s law:
 n=
 Thin prisms

 Prisms having refracting angle less than 10⁰ are called thin prisms.
For such prisms sinθ θ
 n= and e =
 i nr1 and e nr2
 Using equation (4) we get
 i + e = nr1 + nr2 = n(r1 + r2) = nA = A +
 = A(n – 1)
 For a thin prism, for small angles of incidences, angle of deviation is
constant.
 Angular dispersion and mean
deviation

 Angular dispersion for two component colours is 21 = 2 - 1

 Using deviation for thin prisms we can write, 21 = 2 - 1 = A(n2 – 1) - A(n1 – 1) = A(n2 –
n1)
 Also, VR = V - R = A(nV – 1) – A(nR – 1) = A(nV - nR)
 Yellow is chosen to be the mean colour for violet and red.
 VR = Y = A(nY – 1)
 Dispersive power

 Ability of an optical material to disperse constituent colours is its dispersive

power.
 It is measured for any two colours as the ratio of angular dispersion to the
mean deviation for those two colours.
 = = =
 Dispersive power is a unitless and dimensionless quantity.
 For commonly used glass, dispersive power is around 0.03
 Dispersive power depends only on the refractive index and not on the
dimensions of prism.