Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles

McGraw-Hill.

Chapter 3
(Book Chapter 4)
ENERGY ANALYSIS OF
CLOSED SYSTEMS

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Fixed or moving
The first
secondlawlaw
of thermodynamics:
of thermodynamics:
•An expression of the has
conservation boundary
It asserts that energy quality asofwell
energy principle,
as quantity, Boundary work.
in
andwhich during
actual an interaction,
processes occur in energy can change
the direction of from
one form to another but the total amount of energy Conservation
decreasing quality of energy
remains constant, and it asserts that the energy energy.
cannot be created or destroyed Polytropic process:
o Isothermal
o Isobaric
o Isochoric
Energy balance.
Enthalpy.

Conservation energy
and mass.
Energy transport with
mass.
Steady flow system.
Steady flow devices.

Dependency of second law and first

law.
Kelvin-Planck statement.
Clausius statement.
Coefficient of performance (COP).
Thermal efficiency.
Perpetual motion machine.
Reversible and irreversible process.

2
MOVING BOUNDARY WORK
Moving boundary work (P dV work): Quasi-equilibrium process:
The expansion and compression work A process during which the system
in a piston-cylinder device. remains nearly in equilibrium at all
times.
Wb is positive  for expansion
Wb is negative  for compression

The work associated

with a moving
boundary is called
A gas does a boundary work.
differential
amount of work
Wb as it forces
the piston to
move by a
differential
amount ds. 3
 The boundary
work done
during a process
depends on the
path followed as
well as the end
states.

The area under the process

curve on a P-V diagram
represents the boundary work. The net work done
during a cycle is the
difference between
the work done by
the system and the
work done on the
system.
4
Polytropic, Isothermal, and Isobaric processes
Polytropic process: C, n (polytropic exponent) constants
Polytropic
process

Polytropic and for ideal gas

When n = 1
(isothermal process)

Constant pressure process

What is the boundary

work for a constant-
volume process?

Schematic and
P-V diagram for
a polytropic
process. 5
ENERGY BALANCE FOR CLOSED SYSTEMS
Energy balance for any system
undergoing any process

Energy balance
in the rate form

The total quantities are related to the quantities per unit time is

Energy balance per

unit mass basis
Energy balance in
differential form

Energy balance
for a cycle

6
Energy balance when sign convention is used (i.e., heat input and work
output are positive; heat output and work input are negative).

Various forms of the first-law relation

For a cycle E = 0, thus Q = W. for closed systems when sign
convention is used.
The first law cannot be proven mathematically, but no process in nature is known
to have violated the first law, and this should be taken as sufficient proof.
7
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure
expansion or compression process
General analysis for a closed system
undergoing a quasi-equilibrium
constant-pressure process. Q is to the
system and W is from the system.

An example of constant-pressure process

From chapter 3

8
 SPECIFIC HEATS
Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the volume
is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the pressure
is maintained constant.

Constant-volume
and constant-
pressure specific
Specific heat is the energy heats cv and cp
required to raise the (values are for
temperature of a unit mass helium gas).
of a substance by one
degree in a specified way. 9
• The equations in the figure are valid for any substance undergoing any
process.
• cv and cp are properties.
• cv is related to the changes in internal energy and cp to the changes in
enthalpy.
• A common unit for specific heats is kJ/kg · °C or kJ/kg · K. Are these units
identical?

Formal definitions of cv and cp.

The specific heat of a substance

changes with temperature.

True or False?
cp is always greater than cv.
10
THE IDEAL-GAS EQUATION OF STATE
• Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure, temperature,
and specific volume of a substance.
• The simplest and best-known equation of state for substances in the gas
phase is the ideal-gas equation of state. This equation predicts the P-v-T
behavior of a gas quite accurately within some properly selected region.
Ideal gas equation
of state

R: gas constant
M: molar mass (kg/kmol)
Ru: universal gas constant

Different substances have different

gas constants.
11
Mass = Molar mass  Mole number Ideal gas equation at two
states for a fixed mass

Real gases
behave as an ideal
Various
gas at low
expressions densities (i.e., low
of ideal gas pressure, high
equation temperature).

The ideal-gas
relation often is not
applicable to real
gases; thus, care
should be exercised
when using it.

Properties per
unit mole are
denoted with a
bar on the top. 12
Is Water Vapor an Ideal Gas?
• At pressures below 10 kPa, water
vapor can be treated as an ideal
gas, regardless of its temperature,
with negligible error (less than 0.1
percent).
• At higher pressures, however, the
ideal gas assumption yields
unacceptable errors, particularly in
the vicinity of the critical point and
the saturated vapor line.
• In air-conditioning applications, the
water vapor in the air can be
treated as an ideal gas. Why?
• In steam power plant applications,
however, the pressures involved
are usually very high; therefore,
ideal-gas relations should not be
used.

Percentage of error ([|vtable - videal|/vtable] 100) involved in

assuming steam to be an ideal gas, and the region where steam
can be treated as an ideal gas with less than 1 percent error. 13
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY,
AND SPECIFIC HEATS OF IDEAL GASES

Joule showed
using this
experimental Internal energy and
apparatus that For ideal gases,
enthalpy change of
u=u(T) u, h, cv, and cp
an ideal gas
vary with
temperature only. 14
• At low pressures, all real gases approach • u and h data for a number of
ideal-gas behavior, and therefore their gases have been tabulated.
specific heats depend on temperature only. • These tables are obtained by
• The specific heats of real gases at low choosing an arbitrary reference
pressures are called ideal-gas specific point and performing the
heats, or zero-pressure specific heats, and integrations by treating state 1
are often denoted cp0 and cv0. as the reference state.

Ideal-gas
constant-
pressure
specific heats
for some
gases (see In the preparation of ideal-gas
Table A–2c tables, 0 K is chosen as the
for cp reference temperature.
equations). 15
Internal energy and enthalpy change when
specific heat is taken constant at an
average value

(kJ/kg)

For small temperature intervals, the

specific heats may be assumed to vary
linearly with temperature.

The relation  u = cv T
is valid for any kind of
process, constant-
volume or not.
16
Three ways of calculating u and h
1. By using the tabulated u and h data.
This is the easiest and most
accurate way when tables are
readily available.
2. By using the cv or cp relations (Table
A-2c) as a function of temperature
and performing the integrations. This
is very inconvenient for hand
calculations but quite desirable for
computerized calculations. The
results obtained are very accurate.
3. By using average specific heats.
This is very simple and certainly
very convenient when property
tables are not available. The results Three ways of calculating u.
obtained are reasonably accurate if
the temperature interval is not very
large.

17
 Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
The relationship between cp, cv and R

dh = cpdT and du = cvdT On a molar basis

Specific
heat ratio

• The specific ratio varies with

temperature, but this variation is
very mild.
• For monatomic gases (helium,
argon, etc.), its value is essentially
constant at 1.667.
The cp of an ideal gas can be
• Many diatomic gases, including air,
determined from a knowledge of
have a specific heat ratio of about
cv and R.
1.4 at room temperature.
18
INTERNAL ENERGY, ENTHALPY, AND
SPECIFIC HEATS OF SOLIDS AND LIQUIDS
Incompressible substance: A substance whose specific volume
(or density) is constant. Solids and liquids are incompressible
substances.

The specific volumes of The cv and cp values of

incompressible substances incompressible substances are
remain constant during a identical and are denoted by c.
process.
19
Internal Energy Changes

Enthalpy Changes

The enthalpy of a
compressed liquid
A more accurate relation than 20
A tank contains nitrogen at 27C. The temperature rises to
127C by heat transfer to the system. Find the ratio of the
final pressure to the initial pressure and the heat transfer of
the system.

Process: Tanks are rigid vessels; therefore, the process is constant

volume.
Conservation of Mass: m m
2 1

Using the combined ideal gas equation of state,

PV PV
2 2
 1 1
T2 T1
Since R is the particular gas constant, and the process is constant volume,
V2 V1
P2 T2 (127  273) K
  1333
.
P1 T1 (27  273) K
21
Conservation of Energy - The first law closed system is:
:
Ein  Eout E
Qnet  Wnet U
For nitrogen undergoing a constant volume process (dV = 0), the net
work is (Wother = 0):

Using the ideal gas relations with Wnet = 0, the first law becomes:

The heat transfer per unit mass is:

22
Summary
• Moving boundary work
 Wb for an isothermal process
 Wb for a constant-pressure process
 Wb for a polytropic process
• Energy balance for closed systems
 Energy balance for a constant-pressure expansion or
compression process
• Specific heats
 Constant-pressure specific heat, cp
 Constant-volume specific heat, cv
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of ideal gases
 Specific heat relations of ideal gases
• Internal energy, enthalpy, and specific heats of
incompressible substances (solids and liquids)
23