REPLICATION,

TRANSCRIPTION,
& TRANSLATION

MECHANISMS OF INHERITANCE
OUTCOME:
M2 – REPLICATION & PROTEINS
• Describe the process of DNA replication. Include: template, semi-
conservative replication, and role of enzymes
• Compare DNA and RNA in terms of their structure, use, and
location in the cell.
•Outline the steps involved in protein synthesis. Include: mRNA,
codon, amino acid, transcription, tRNA, anticodon, ribosome, and
translation
• Relate the consequences of gene mutation to the final protein
product. Examples: point mutation in sickle-cell anemia, frameshift
mutation in β-thalassemia.
• Discuss implications of gene mutation for genetic variation.
Include: source of new alleles
Recall…

The twisted ladder analogy provides a familiar visual

picture that is useful for understanding a very complex
molecule. Remember that a DNA molecule is made up
of two chains of nucleotides. The sugar and phosphate
molecules in these nucleotides form the two upright
sides of the ladder. The organic bases in these
nucleotides form the ladder’s rungs.
Organic bases bond to each other in predictable ways
because of their chemical structure.
The base called adenine (A) pairs only with thymine
(T), while the base called guanine (G) pairs only with
cytosine (C).
Genes are made up of DNA, which holds the
instructions for the cell about which molecules it
should produce. Those molecules, coded by the
cell’s DNA, control the cell’s traits.
DNA Replication

The reproduction or copying of DNA is called

DNA replication.
The replication of DNA involves three essential
steps.
1. Base pairs separate.
If you imagine the DNA molecule
as a twisted ladder, the first step in
the replication of DNA consists of
the base pairs that make up the
rungs of the ladder separating from
one another. The ladder separates
down the middle.
2. New bases move into
position.
Once the base pairs on each side of
the ladder are exposed, new
nucleotides move into position next
to them. The ladder structure is
restored as the organic bases of new
nucleotides bond to the exposed
bases of the nucleotides from the
original ladder.
3. Nucleotides are bonded together.
Once the new nucleotides have moved into
position and the rungs have been re-formed, the
sugar/phosphate sides of the ladder also bond
together, this completes the copying process. The
two new ladders are identical to each other, as
well as to the original ladder.
Note that half of each new ladder is made up of the
“old” nucleotides and the other half is made up of
“new” nucleotides. Therefore, DNA replication is said
to be a semi-conservative process. There is no old
strand or new strand; each strand (each ladder) is half
old and half new.
DNA replication is a process that would not
occur without the involvement of enzymes.
Enzymes are molecules that speed up
chemical reactions in living cells.
In the case of DNA replication, one enzyme causes
the strands of DNA to separate, exposing the
bases.
Another enzyme recognizes the exposed bases
and matches them up with free, complementary
nucleotides.
Another enzyme bonds the sugar and phosphate
molecules together to form the backbone of the
new strand.
Yet another enzyme proofreads the new strands
to ensure accuracy and to make corrections if
required.
DNA replication occurs fairly quickly; as many
as 4000 nucleotides per second are replicated.
RNA Structure and Function

It is important to recognize ribonucleic acid (RNA),

the other nucleic acid molecule essential to those
processes. Like DNA, RNA is a molecule that consists
of a chain of smaller molecules known as nucleotides.
There are some important structural and functional
differences between DNA and RNA:

• The sugar present in RNA is ribose instead of

deoxyribose, which is present in DNA.
• RNA contains uracil instead of
thymine. Like thymine, uracil is a
pyrimidine; therefore, it possesses
one ring. It bonds with adenine (A)
in an RNA molecule. Uracil (U)
possesses the chemical structure
shown in this image.
• RNA is a single-
stranded molecule.
DNA is like a twisted
ladder, while RNA is
like a half-ladder
made of a chain of
nucleotides.
DNA stays in the nucleus of the cell, whereas RNA
moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm of the cell.
Transcription is the process of making RNA, using
DNA as a template; transcription occurs in the nucleus
of the cell.
However, translation is the process of
using RNA to build proteins; translation
occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. A
cellular structure called a ribosome is
used to carry out translation.
There are three types of RNA molecules,
all of which are involved in translation:
— messenger RNA (mRNA)
— transfer RNA (tRNA)
— ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
DNA is located inside the nucleus of the cell. It instructs
the cell by controlling the types of proteins that the cell
produces. The types of proteins produced determine
the structural and functional traits that the cell
possesses.
Transcription

One type of RNA, mRNA, is synthesized in the cell

nucleus and then travels out of the nucleus into the
cytoplasm. It moves to where ribosomes are located.
Recall that ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
Ribosomes are cellular components that use the
information stored in mRNA to make proteins.
During the process of transcription, DNA is used as a
template to make RNA.
The DNA molecule unzips, exposing its organic bases.
Complementary RNA nucleotides in the cell nucleus
move into position. Recall that RNA possesses uracil
instead of thymine.
After RNA nucleotides have paired up correctly with
their complementary nucleotides in the DNA chain,
they bond to each other, forming a single strand.
The temporary bonds that the single strand had
with the DNA template break, and the mRNA
strand moves away from the DNA template.
As a result of transcription, the permanent code
stored in the DNA double helix remains in the
nucleus, while its messenger, mRNA, carries the
code in a single-stranded format out into the
cytoplasm.
Translation

The use of mRNA to manufacture proteins is the

process of translation. Recall that ribosomes are
partially made of rRNA. The mRNA strand connects
to the ribosome. The ribosome is a structure that
temporarily brings together the mRNA strand and
tRNA molecules in the cytoplasm. That is important
because tRNA molecules carry amino acids.
Each tRNA molecule in the cytoplasm has two
specific functional sites. One end of the molecule
is attached to one of the 20 amino acid molecules
that are found in nature, and the other end is
made up of a triplet of nitrogen-containing bases,
the same type of bases found in mRNA.
Since the organic bases in RNA (U, A, C, and G) match
up with one another in predictable ways, each triplet
of bases on the tRNA molecule will match up with a
triplet of bases on the mRNA strand.
Each triplet of bases on the mRNA strand is called a
codon. Each triplet of bases on each tRNA molecule is
called an anticodon. If the codon is C–G–A, the
matching anticodon is G–C–U. The specific pairings of
bases makes the process predictable.
The amazing part of this process is that
tRNA molecules carry amino acids, the
building blocks of proteins. Each anticodon
indicates that a particular amino acid is
attached to that tRNA molecule.
The sequence of bases in the DNA is used to build a
strand of mRNA with a particular sequence of bases,
which travels into the cytoplasm. There, specific tRNA
molecules move into position, as anticodons match
codons. As a result, a particular sequence of amino
acids is created. When peptide bonds form between
those amino acids, a protein molecule is manufactured.
https://www.youtube.com/watch
?app=desktop&v=Fftek5mIh28
Note that there are “stop” codons that tell the ribosome
that the protein is complete.

In the end, a sequence of bases on a nucleic acid chain is

translated into a sequence of amino acids on a protein
chain. The nucleic acid molecule is the “recipe” and the
protein is the finished product.
The genetic code is connected to specific protein
sequences according to the mRNA codon chart shown
on the next slide. This genetic code is said to be
universal because the pairings shown in this chart are
valid for all living organisms, regardless of their
complexity.
The chart illustrates how codons
(mRNA) code for specific amino
acids. A similar chart could be
made to show how anticodons
(tRNA) code for specific amino
acids.
There are 20 amino acids found in nature. Notice
that one amino acid is often coded for by more
than one codon. That is the case because when
four possible bases are combined in groups of
three, there are 64 possible codons.
Since there are 64 codons and 20 amino acids,
each amino acid is coded for by more than one
codon. Notice that each codon, however, codes
for only one amino acid.
Consider the process from DNA to protein
in the following example:
Each protein molecule manufactured by living cells
has a very particular length, three-dimensional
structure, and amino acid sequence. Proteins are
very specific in terms of the functions they serve in
the cell.
Proteins are the compounds that determine the
structure and function of each cell and its parts.
The particular proteins that are manufactured by
each cell depend on the genetic code carried in its
nucleus.
OUTCOME:
M2 – REPLICATION & PROTEINS
• Describe the process of DNA replication. Include: template, semi-
conservative replication, and role of enzymes
• Compare DNA and RNA in terms of their structure, use, and
location in the cell.
•Outline the steps involved in protein synthesis. Include: mRNA,
codon, amino acid, transcription, tRNA, anticodon, ribosome, and
translation
• Relate the consequences of gene mutation to the final protein
product. Examples: point mutation in sickle-cell anemia, frameshift
mutation in β-thalassemia.
• Discuss implications of gene mutation for genetic variation.
Include: source of new alleles