The Foundations: Logic
and Proofs
Chapter 1, Sec 1.2 : Propositional
Equivalences
Chapter Summary
Propositional Logic
Propositional Equivalences
Predicate Logic and Quantifiers
Nested Quantifiers
Rules of Inference
Proofs
Proof methods and Strategy
Propositional
Equivalences
Section 1.2
Section Summary
(Hằng đúng, Hằng sai, và tiếp liên)
Tautologies, Contradictions, and
Contingencies.
Logical Equivalence (tương đương logic)
Important Logical Equivalences
Showing Logical Equivalence
Tautologies, Contradictions, and Contingencies
A tautology is a proposition which is always
true, no matter what the truth value of the
Example: p ∨¬p
propositions occur in it.
A contradiction is a proposition which is
Example: p ∧¬p
always false.
A contingency is a proposition w hich is
P a tautology
neither ¬p
nor a p ∨¬p p ∧¬p
contradiction, such
as p T F T F
F T T F
More examples
Show that
are tautologies.
Logically Equivalent
equivalent if p↔q is a tautology.
Two compound propositions and are logically
Notation: p⇔q or p≡q.
Two compound propositions p and q are
equivalent if and only if the columns in a truth
This truth table shows that ¬p ∨ q is equivalent
table giving their truth values agree.
to p → q.
p q ¬p ¬p ∨ q p→ q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T
De Morgan’s Laws
Augustus De
Morgan
1806-
1871
This truth table shows that De Morgan’s Second Law holds.
p q ¬p ¬q (p∨q) ¬(p∨q) ¬p∧¬q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
Key Logical Equivalences
Identity Laws: ,
Domination Laws: ,
Idempotent laws: ,
Double Negation Law:
Negation Laws: ,
Key Logical Equivalences (cont.)
Commutative Laws: ,
Associative Laws:
Distributive Laws:
Absorption Laws: ,
More Logical Equivalences
Constructing new logical equivalences
Keep in mind that whenever a proposition
(represented by a propositional variable)
occurs in the equivalences listed earlier, it may
be replaced by an arbitrarily complex
compound proposition.
Equivalence Proofs
We can show that two expressions are
logically equivalent by developing a series of
logically equivalent statements.
To prove that we produce a series
of equivalences beginning with A and ending
with B.
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that
is logically equivalent to
Solution:
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that is a
tautology.
Solution:
Equivalence Proofs
Example: Show that and
are logical equivalent.
Solution:
Key terms
Tautology
Contradiction
Contingency
Logically equivalent compound propositions
Next lesson
Predicate
Propositional function
Universal quantifier
Existential quantifier
