The Foundations: Logic
and Proofs
Chapter 1, Part II: Predicate Logic
Chapter Summary
Propositional Logic
Propositional Equivalences
Predicate Logic and Quantifiers
Nested Quantifiers
Rules of Inference
Proofs
Proof methods and Strategy
Predicates and Quantifiers
Section 1.3
Section Summary
Predicates (vị ngữ)
Variables (Biến)
Quantifiers (lượng hóa)
Universal Quantifier (lượng hóa phổ dụng)
Existential Quantifier (lượng hóa tồn tại)
Negating Quantifiers (lượng hóa phủ định)
De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
Translating English to Logic
Propositional Logic Not Enough
If we have:
“All men are mortal.”
“Socrates is a man.”
Does it follow that “Socrates is mortal?”
Can’t be represented in propositional logic.
Need a language that talks about objects,
their properties, and their relations.
Introducing Predicate Logic
Consider the sentence:
“x is greater than 10”
SUBJEC PREDICATE
T P
x P
(Proposition
al
P(x): “x is greater than 10” Function)
P(x) is the value of propositional function P at x.
Introducing Predicate Logic
Predicate logic uses the following new
features:
Variables: x, y, z
Predicates: P(x), M(x)
Quantifiers (to be covered in a few slides):
Propositional functions are a generalization of
propositions.
They contain variables and a predicate, e.g., P(x)
Variables can be replaced by elements from their
domain.
Propositional Functions
Propositional functions become propositions (and
have truth values) when their variables are each
replaced by a value from the domain
The statement P(x) is said to be the value of the
For example, let P(x) denote “x > 0” and the domain
propositional function P at x.
be the integers. Then:
P(-3) is false.
P(0) is false.
P(3) is true.
Often the domain is denoted by U. So in this
example U is the integers.
Examples of Propositional Functions
Let “x + y = z” be denoted by R(x, y, z) and U (for all three
variables) be the integers. Find these truth values:
R(2,-1,5)
Solution: R(2,-1,5): “2-1=5” is False.
R(3,4,7)
R(x, 3, z)
Solution:
Solution:
Now let “x - y = z” be denoted by Q(x, y, z), with U as the integers.
Find these truth values:
Q(2,-1,3)
Solution:
Q(3,4,7)
Q(x, 3, z)
Solution:
Solution:
Quantifiers
We need quantifiers to express the meaning of English
words including all and some:
“All men are Mortal.”
“Some cats do not have fur.”
The two most important quantifiers are:
Universal Quantifier, “For all,” symbol:
Existential Quantifier, “There exists,” symbol:
We write as in x P(x) and x P(x).
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for every x in the domain.
x P(x) asserts P(x) is true for some x in the domain.
The quantifiers are said to bind the variable x in these
expressions.
Universal Quantifier
x P(x) is read as
“For all x in the domain, P(x)”
or
“For every x in the domain, P(x)”
If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then
Examples:
1)
If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the positive
x P(x) is false.
integers, then
2)
If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers,
x P(x) is true.
then x P(x) is false.
3)
Existential Quantifier
x P(x) is read as
“For some x in the domain, P(x)”,
or as “There is a x in the domain such that P(x),”
or “For at least one x in the domain, P(x).”
If P(x) denotes “x > 0” and U is the integers, then x
Examples:
1.
If P(x) denotes “x < 0” and U is the positive integers,
P(x) is true. It is also true if U is the positive integers.
then
2.
If P(x) denotes “x is even” and U is the integers, then
x P(x) is false.
3.
x P(x) is true.
Properties of Quantifiers
The truth value of x P(x) and x P(x) depend on
both the propositional function P(x) and on the
domain U.
Examples:
“x < 2”, then x P(x) is true, but x P(x) is
1. If U is the positive integers and P(x) is the statement
false.
“x < 2”, then both x P(x) and x P(x) are true.
2. If U is the negative integers and P(x) is the statement
3. If U consists of 3, 4, and 5, and P(x) is the statement
“x > 2”, then both x P(x) and x P(x) are
true. But if P(x) is the statement “x < 2”, then both x
P(x) and x P(x) are false.
Precedence of Quantifiers
The quantifiers and have higher
For example, x P(x) ∨ Q(x) means (x
precedence than all the logical operators.
P(x))∨ Q(x)
x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)) means something different.
Unfortunately, often people write x P(x) ∨
Q(x) when they mean x (P(x) ∨ Q(x)).
Translating from English to Logic
Example 1: Translate the following sentence into
predicate logic:
“Every student in this class has taken a course in
Logic.”
Solution:
- First decide on the domain U:
U is all students in this class
- The define a propositional function J(x):
J(x): “x has taken a course in Logic”
x J(x).
- and translate the sentence as
Translating from English to Logic
Example 2: Translate the following sentence
into predicate logic: “Some student in this
class has taken a course in Logic.”
Solution:
- the domain U is all students in this class
- J(x): “x has taken a course in Logic”
x J(x)
- translate as
Returning to the Socrates Example
Introduce the propositional functions Man(x)
denoting “x is a man” and Mortal(x) denoting
“x is mortal.” Specify the domain as all
people.
The two premises are:
The conclusion is:
Later we will show how to prove that the
conclusion follows from the premises.
Equivalences in Predicate Logic
Statements involving predicates and
quantifiers are logically equivalent if and only
if they have the same truth value
for every predicate substituted into these
statements and
for every domain used for the variables in the
The notation S ≡T indicates that S and T are
expressions.
logically equivalent.
Example: x ¬¬S(x) ≡ x S(x)
Example
Proof:
Thinking about Quantifiers as Conjunctions
and Disjunctions
If the domain is finite, a universally quantified proposition is
equivalent to a conjunction of propositions without quantifiers
and an existentially quantified proposition is equivalent to a
If U consists of the integers 1,2, and 3:
disjunction of propositions without quantifiers.
Even if the domains are infinite, you can still think of the
quantifiers in this fashion, but the equivalent expressions
without quantifiers will be infinitely long.
Negating Quantified Expressions
Consider x J(x)
“Every student in your class has taken a course in
Here J(x) is “x has taken a course in Logic” and
Logic.”
the domain is students in your class.
Negating the original statement gives “It is not
the case that every student in your class has
taken Logic.” This implies that “There is a
Symbolically ¬x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are
student in your class who has not taken Logic.”
equivalent
Negating Quantified Expressions
(continued)
Now Consider x J(x)
“There is a student in this class who has taken a
Where J(x) is “x has taken a course in Logic.”
course in Logic.”
Negating the original statement gives “It is not
the case that there is a student in this class
who has taken Logic.” This implies that “Every
Symbolically ¬ x J(x) and x ¬J(x) are
student in this class has not taken Logic”
equivalent
De Morgan’s Laws for Quantifiers
The rules for negating quantifiers are:
The reasoning in the table shows that:
These are important!
Translation from English to Logic
Examples:
1. “Some student in this class has visited Phú
Quốc.”
Solution: Let M(x) denote “x has visited Phú Quốc”
U be all people.
and S(x) denote “x is a student in this class,” and
x (S(x) ∧ M(x))
2. “Every student in this class has visited Hạ Long
or Phú Quốc.”
Solution: Add C(x) denoting “x has visited Hạ
x (S(x)→ (M(x)∨C(x)))
Long.”
Lewis Carroll Example
Charles Lutwidge
Dodgson
(AKA Lewis Caroll)
The first two are called premises and the third(1832-1898)
is called the
conclusion.
1. “All lions are fierce.”
2. “Some lions do not drink coffee.”
3. “Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”
Here is one way to translate these statements to predicate
logic. Let P(x), Q(x), and R(x) be the propositional
functions “x is a lion,” “x is fierce,” and “x drinks coffee,”
1. x (P(x)→ Q(x))
respectively.
2. x (P(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
3. x (Q(x) ∧ ¬R(x))
Later we will see how to prove that the conclusion follows
from the premises.
Key terms
For next lesson
1. Nested quantifier
