Chapter 1

Network Models

2.1
 Part 1

Introduction to Computer
Networks

2.2
 What is a Computer Network?

Definition:
• A computer network is a collection of

interconnected devices that can communicate and

share resources with each other. These devices can
include computers, servers, printers, and other
hardware connected by wired or wireless media.

1.3
Purpose of Computer Networks
 Resource Sharing: Allows multiple devices to share
resources such as files, printers, and internet
connections, reducing costs and increasing efficiency.
 Communication: Facilitates communication through
email, instant messaging, and video conferencing,
enhancing collaboration and information sharing.
 Data Transfer: Enables the rapid transfer and access of
data across different locations, supporting real-time
operations and decision-making.

1.4
Key Network Elements
 Devices: Computers, Servers, Printers, Smartphones:
End devices that use the network to communicate.
 Transmission Media: Wired (Ethernet cables) and
Wireless (Wi-Fi): Means through which data travels
within the network.
 Network Interfaces: Network Interface Cards (NICs):
Hardware that connects a device to the network.
 Networking Hardware: Routers, Switches, Hubs:
Devices that manage data traffic and ensure efficient
data transmission.

5
Key Network Elements

6
 Network Types (Size)
1. PAN (Personal Area Network): Covers a very small area,
like Bluetooth connections between devices.
2. LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area, such as a
single building or campus, managed by one
organization.
3. WAN (Wide Area Network): Spans large geographical
areas, connecting remote locations using public or
private telecommunications.
4. Internet: Global network connecting millions of
computers, providing access to vast information and
services.
1.7
Personal Area Network

2.8
LAN Local Area Network
Campus Area Network (CAN)

2.10
WAN Wide Area Network

2.11
Internet: Inter-Network

2.12
Computer Network Topologies
1. Bus Topology: All devices share a single communication
line or bus.
2. Star Topology: All devices are connected to a central hub
or switch.
3. Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular loop,
data travels in one direction.
4. Mesh Topology: Devices are interconnected, each having a
direct link to every other device.
5. Tree Topology: Hierarchical structure with a root node and
branching nodes.
6. Hybrid Topology: Combination of two or more different
topologies.
13
Bus Topology: All devices share a
single communication line or bus.

14
Star Topology: All devices are
connected to a central hub or
switch.

15
Ring Topology: Devices are connected
in a circular loop, data travels in one
direction.

16
Mesh Topology: Devices are
interconnected, each having a direct
link to every other device

17
Tree Topology: Hierarchical structure
with a root node and branching nodes.

18
Hybrid Topology: Combination of two
or more different topologies.

19
 Network Models

2.20
Network Models: Introduction
 A Network Model is a structured framework
that defines the functions and standards for
communication between devices in a network.
It organizes these functions into distinct layers,
each responsible for specific tasks, allowing
diverse hardware and software systems to
interact seamlessly.

2.21
 Concept of layers

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

2.22
 Example of a Layered System: Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.23
 Two Major Layered System in the Internet

OSI Model: The OSI model, developed by the

International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), defines a networking framework with seven
layers to standardize the functions of a
telecommunication or computing system.

TCP/IP Model: The TCP/IP model, developed by

the Department of Defense (DoD), is a concise
version of the OSI model, comprising five layers
and widely used in the internet.

2.24
OSI model
1. Framework: The OSI model standardizes
network functions into seven layers.
2. Interoperability: Ensures different devices and
protocols communicate seamlessly.
3. Guidance: Helps in developing and
understanding network protocols.

2.25
 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.26
 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

Peer-to-Peer Communication: Communication

between two processes at the same hierarchical
level, at the end devices.
OSI Layer: Occurs primarily at (Layers 4- 7) of the
OSI model.
Node-to-Node Communication: Involves
communication between all nodes involved in the
layer. including the Data Link layer (Layer 2) and
Network layer (Layer 3). An example is routing
data packets between networks.

2.27
 Data exchange using the OSI model

each layer adds each layer

a header to the removes
previous load a header to the
previous load

2.28
Transfer of Data from source to
Destination

2.29
 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.30
 Application layer

The application layer is responsible for providing services to the user.

2.31
 Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for data translation,

encryption, and compression, ensuring that information exchanged
between systems is in a format that can be understood by the
receiving system.

2.32
 Session layer

The session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating

connections between application processes on the client and server sides. It
enables these applications to communicate over the network and ensures
synchronized data exchange.
2.33
 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

Each process on one end

communicates with the
corresponding process
on the other end

The process refers to a specific application or program

running on a host device. A web Browser running
Facebook is a process

2.34
 Transport layer: end to end
Starts dividing message
into chuncks (Segments)

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery of data segments

from the source host to the destination host, providing reliable and
efficient data transfer services.

2.35
 Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual

packets from the source host to the destination host, via
intermediate nodes (Routers), using IP addresses

2.36
 Network Layer: Source-to-destination delivery

2.37
 Hop-to-hop delivery : Data link layer

2.38
 Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop
(Switch) to the next, frames (group of bits), using MAC addresses

2.39
 Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits

from one hop (node) to the next as an electrical signals (0,1)

2.40
 Summary of layers

2.41
 TCP/IP Model

2.42
 From OSI to TCP/IP model

2.43
 Concept of Layering: Web Access

find info about Internet

on the Web ! IETF web page

URL: www.ietf.org

RFC 1011 : “Internet Protocols”

client server
TCP-Connection
IP
-d
a ta
g ra
m
Internet Protocol
router
56.6 kbit/s
modem connection

2 Mbit/s 140 Mbit/s

local telephone ISDN link PDH link
switch 100 Gbit/s WDM
transatlantic optical cable 10 Mbit/s local area network

2.44
 TCP/IP Reference Model

General reference model Examples

5. Application Layer WWW, FTP, e-mail,...

4. Transport Layer TCP , UDP

3. Network Layer IP

2. Data Link Layer Ethernet, SDH, ISDN

1. Physical Layer coax, fiber,

TP, ...

2.45
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical,
port, and specific.

• Physical Adresses

• Logical Adresses

• Port Addresses

• Specific Addresses

2.46
Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.47
 Physical addresses

• In the Figure a node with physical address

10 sends a frame to a node with physical
address 87. The two nodes are connected
by a link (bus topology LAN).
• It is unique to each network interface and
is used at the data link layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model. Example:
2.48 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
 Physical Address is the MAC Address

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area

networks use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical
address written as 12 hexadecimal digits;
every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is separated
by a colon, as shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical
address.
01: 0000 0001
07: 0000 0111
2C: 0010 1100
...
2.49
 IP Address (logical)

Figure (next slide) shows a part of an Internet

with two routers connecting three LANs. Each
device (computer or router) has a pair of
addresses (logical and physical) for each
connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has
only one pair of addresses.
Each router, however, is connected to three
networks (only two are shown in the figure).
So each router has three pairs of addresses,
one for each connection.
192.168.10.1
2.50
 IP addresses (logical)

2.51
 Port number

• Figure (next slide) shows two computers

communicating via the Internet. The
sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses
a, b, and c.
• The receiving computer is running two
processes at this time with port addresses j
and k. Process a in the sending computer
needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although
physical addresses change from hop to hop,
logical and port addresses remain the same
2.52
 Port addresses

2.53
 Physical vs. Logical Addresses
 Physical Address: Also known as a MAC
(Media Access Control) address, this is a
hardware address assigned to network
interfaces for communication on the
physical network. It is unique to each
network interface and is used at the data
link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model.
Example: 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E
 Logical Address: This is an IP (Internet
Protocol) address assigned to devices on a
network to uniquely identify them within
an internetwork. It is used at the network 2.
54
 Port Address vs. Specific Addrees
1. Port Address: Ports are used to differentiate
between different services or processes
running on the same device. In TCP/IP,
ports are used at the transport layer (Layer
4) to direct incoming data to the correct
application. Example: 80 for HTTP, 443 for
HTTPS.
2. Specific Address: This could refer to any
additional address used for specific
purposes, which may vary depending on
the context. For example, in the context of
web browsing, this could be the URL of a 2.
website, or the email address 55