GEOINFORMATIC SYSTEM

• A Geographic Information System (GIS) is defined as, “a system designed to capture, store,
manipulate, analyse, manage and present or display spatial or geographically referenced
information, i.e., data identified according to their locations.”
• Father of Gis – Roger Tomlinson

DATA MODEL
 COMPONENTS OF GIS
1. Hardware: This includes the physical equipment used to collect,
store, analyze, and visualize geographic data. It involves
computers, GPS devices, servers, scanners, drones, and other
peripheral devices.

2. Software: GIS software provides the tools to manage spatial

data, perform analysis, and create maps. Popular GIS software
includes ArcGIS, QGIS, MapInfo, and open-source options like
GRASS GIS. These software packages offer a wide range of
functionalities for data manipulation, analysis, and visualization.

3. Data: Data is a fundamental component of GIS. It includes

spatial data (points, lines, polygons, raster images) representing
features like roads, buildings, land use, elevation, etc.
Additionally, attribute data describes the characteristics of these
spatial features (e.g., population, temperature, land ownership).
4. People: Human expertise is essential in GIS. Professionals
skilled in geography, cartography, surveying, environmental
science, and computer science work with GIS data, software,
and hardware to collect, analyze, interpret, and present
geographic information.

5. Methods: GIS involves various methods and techniques for

data collection, analysis, and visualization. This includes
remote sensing, GPS technology, spatial analysis, geostatistics,
and cartography.

6. Procedures: Standard operating procedures and workflows

guide how data is collected, processed, analyzed, and shared
within GIS. These procedures ensure consistency, accuracy,
and reliability in GIS applications.
 HISTORY OF GIS
• Geographer Charles Picquet first applied the concept of spatial analysis in
1832 by creating a map that showed cholera outbreaks across 48 Paris
districts.
• Inspired by Picquet, John Snow adopted the same principle to depict
cholera deaths in London in 1854.
• In 19th century, a printing technique called Photozincography was
introduced, which allowed users to separate layers from a map. This meant
different themes could be printed.
 FUNCTIONS OF GIS
• Data Collection: GIS gathers information from GPS, satellites, surveys, maps, and
various sources, covering infrastructure, population, elevation, land use, etc.
• Data Storage: Information is organized into layers or databases within GIS,
making retrieval and analysis easy based on specific data types (e.g., roads,
population density).
• Manipulation & Analysis: GIS software allows for spatial data manipulation and
analysis using features like layer overlay, proximity analysis, routing, and
statistical tools.
• Visualization:GIS enables users to visualize geographic data through maps and
other graphical representations.
• Query & Output: GIS enables querying for specific data and
generates effective maps and reports, aiding decision-making.
• Decision Support: It provides valuable spatial insights across fields
like urban planning, environmental management, and emergency
response.
• Integration: GIS integrates with technologies like remote sensing,
GPS, and databases, enhancing its analysis and decision-support
capabilities.
 GIS SOFTWARE PACKAGES

• In Geographic Information Systems (GIS), software can be categorized into two main types based
on their source code availability: open-source and proprietary.
1. Open-source GIS software: refers to applications where the source code is freely available to
the public. Users can access, modify, and distribute the code under certain licenses (e.g., GPL,
MIT, Apache). Examples include QGIS, GRASS GIS, and PostGIS.
2. Proprietary GIS software: refers to applications where the source code is not publicly available,
and the software is developed and owned by a single entity or company. Examples include
ArcGIS by Esri, MapInfo by Pitney Bowes.
 Criteria Open Source GIS Proprietary GIS
Cost Free to use and distribute Often requires purchasing licenses

Highly customizable, adaptable to specific

Customizability Limited customization options
needs

Community Support Strong community support and development Support typically provided by the company

Flexibility Flexible, can be modified by users Less flexible, controlled by the vendor

Higher assurance due to controlled

Quality Assurance Varied quality, may depend on community input
development
Frequent updates and upgrades due to
Updates & Upgrades Controlled updates by the vendor
community

May have compatibility issues with other Usually well-integrated with other proprietary
Integration
systems software
Vulnerabilities can be addressed by the
Security Higher security measures often implemented
community
Comprehensive features developed by the
Features & Functionality Rich features and functionalities
vendor

Vendor has control over the software and its

Ownership & Control Users have more control over the software
updates
There are several GIS software packages available,
• ArcGIS by Esri: A comprehensive suite offering various tools for mapping,
spatial analysis, and data management.
• QGIS (Quantum GIS): An open-source GIS software that provides a range
of functionalities for viewing, editing, and analyzing geospatial data.
• GRASS GIS: Another open-source GIS software focused on geospatial
data management, analysis, and visualization.
• MapInfo Professional: Known for its ease of use and mapping
capabilities, it's often used for location intelligence and business analysis.
• gvSIG – Mapping and geoprocessing with a 3D rendering plugin
• ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) : Integrates image,
vector and thematic data
• JUMP GIS / OpenJUMP ((Open) Java Unified Mapping Platform) : The desktop GISs OpenJUMP,
SkyJUMP, deeJUMP and Kosmo, all emerged from JUMP
• MapWindow GIS : Free desktop application with plugins and a programmer library
• Google Earth Engine: A platform for geospatial analysis that leverages Google's cloud infrastructure
for processing large-scale geospatial data.
• ERDAS IMAGINE: Focused on remote sensing, photogrammetry, and image analysis, it's widely used for
interpreting, processing, and visualizing imagery.
• SAGA GIS (System for Automated Geoscientific Analysis) – Tools for environmental modelling, terrain
analysis, and 3D mapping
• uDig – API and source code (Java) available
• OpenLayers: A JavaScript library used for displaying maps from various sources on web pages.
• GeoDa: Primarily used for exploratory spatial data analysis, spatial econometrics, and statistics.
 DATA TYPES IN GIS

• Vector Data: Represented by points, lines, and polygons:

• Points: Georeferenced coordinates (latitude and longitude) representing specific locations such
as landmarks, addresses, or features like wells, trees, etc.
• Lines (Polylines): Connects points to represent linear features like roads, rivers, or boundaries.
• Polygons: Closed shapes formed by connecting lines, used to represent areas like land parcels,
administrative boundaries, or lakes.
• Raster Data: Represented as a grid of cells or pixels:
• Continuous Raster: Represents continuous surfaces like elevation, temperature, or
precipitation.
• Discrete Raster: Represents categorical data such as land cover, soil types, or vegetation types.
• Tabular Data: Contains attribute information associated with spatial features:
• Attributes: Non-spatial data connected to geographic features, such as population numbers,
land use categories, or property values.
• 3D and TIN Data: Represents three-dimensional surfaces or terrains, often used in terrain
modeling, landscape analysis, or urban planning.
• Image Data: Includes remotely sensed images captured by satellites, aerial photography, or
drones, used for land cover classification, change detection, or environmental monitoring.
• CAD Data: Computer-Aided Design files often used in engineering and architecture, representing
infrastructure like buildings, roads, or utilities.
 VECTOR FORMATS

• Shapefiles:a standard in geospatial data, need at least 3 files(.shp, .shx, .dbf) with
the same name prefix. Optional files include .prj, .lyr, and indexes, all stored
together for completeness.
• SDC (Smart Data Compression): It is ESRI's highly compressed format, which is
directly readable by ArcGIS software.
• GDB (Geodatabase): The file geodatabase is a collection of geographic datasets
of various types, with the most basic types being vector, raster, and tabular data.
There are three types of geodatabases: file, personal, and ArcSDE.
• ArcInfo coverage, was a former geospatial data format, now largely obsolete,
replaced by more modern formats like geodatabases. It lacked individual file
extensions and comprised folders containing various files within a workspace.
 RASTER FORMATS

1. ArcInfo Grid was a raster format without a specific file extension. It consisted of folders within a
workspace containing multiple files, storing geographic data in grid format.
2. Band Interleaved by Line (BIL), Band Interleaved by Pixel (BIP), and Band Sequential (BSQ).
BIL, BIP, and BSQ are formats produced by remote-sensing systems. The primary difference
among them is the technique used to store brightness values captured simultaneously in each
of several colors or spectral bands.
3. GeoTIFF ,It includes the Lat/Long boundary extent within the TIFF file header.
4. LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): is a remote sensing method that uses light in the form of
a pulsed laser to measure ranges (variable distances) to the Earth. File formats vary by
deliverable - but raw LiDAR point cloud data has a .LAS file extension. A DEM can be one
deliverable from LiDAR.
5. DEM (Digital Elevation Model): It is a raster format used by the USGS to record elevation
information. Unlike other raster file formats, DEM cells do not represent color brightness values,
but rather the elevations of points on the earth’s surface
 These represent terrain as a grid of regularly spaced elevation
5.1 Grid-based DEMs:
points. They include:
• Regular Grid: Equally spaced elevation values in a grid format.
• Triangular Irregular Network (TIN): Uses irregularly distributed elevation points
interconnected by triangles to represent terrain.
DIGITAL SURFACE MODEL (DSM) & DIGITAL TERRAIN MODEL (DTM)
5.2 LIDAR-derived DEMs: Generated from LiDAR data by capturing elevation
information from laser pulses reflected off the Earth's surface. These tend to be
highly accurate due to the precise nature of LiDAR technology.
5.3 Stereographic DEMs: Created through stereo-photogrammetry, where
overlapping aerial images are used to calculate elevation by analyzing the
displacement of pixels between images.
5.4Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IFSAR) DEMs: Generated using radar
data from satellites. It measures the phase difference between radar signals to
derive elevation information.
5.5 Global DEMs: These are datasets covering large areas like entire countries or
continents. Examples include SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) data and
ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer) Global
DEM.
 BASIC CONCEPTS IN GIS
• Spatial Data: Information tied to specific locations, represented as points, lines, or polygons on
maps.
• Attribute: The non-spatial information linked to geographic features.
• Attribute Data: Details or characteristics linked to spatial features, stored in tables or databases
(Population,lulc type,etc).
• Raw data: refers to unprocessed, original information collected from various sources like surveys,
satellite images, or databases, before any analysis or manipulation occurs.
• Topology in GIS is about how features relate spatially, aiding analysis by showing connections and
relationships between geographic elements, ensuring accurate spatial understanding.
• Non topological data structure: Each geometry is unaware of its . It can be modified in any way
(moving or reshaping) and this will not affect the other geometries.
• The scale of a map refers to the ratio or relationship between a distance on the map and the
corresponding distance on the ground in the real world, map scale shows how much the real world is
shrunk or enlarged on the map.
There are different types of map scales:
1. Verbal Scale: Expressed in words, for example, "1 inch represents 1 mile."
2. Graphic Scale: A line or bar marked to show distance on the map corresponding to actual ground
distance.
3. Representative Fraction (RF) or Ratio Scale: Presented as a ratio, such as 1:10,000, meaning one
unit on the map represents 10,000 of the same units on the ground.

• Pixel of Image: Pixel is a physical point in a raster image. It is the smallest element that can be
distinguished on a map. In raster image, it is the size of a cell.
• Map resolution: is the count of pixels in an image, determined by its width, height, and total pixel
count, like a 1920x1080 image having 2.07 megapixels.
• Geographic Datasets: It is the geospatial (geo-referenced) data that identifies the geographic location
and boundaries of features on Earth. For example, natural features like oceans, rivers, roads etc.
• Data Layers: Individual datasets representing different geographic features, stacked and analyzed
together in GIS software.
• Spatial Analysis: Tools and techniques to study spatial relationships, patterns, and trends within
geographic data.
• Data Capture and Sources: Methods of collecting geographic data, such as GPS, satellite imagery,
surveys, or existing maps.
• Geoprocessing: Operations performed on geographic data, including editing, analyzing, and
transforming datasets.
• Map Representation: Visualizing data through maps and cartographic techniques to
communicate information effectively.
• Remote Sensing: The process of collecting information about an
object or area from a distance, often using satellites or aircraft, to
acquire data about Earth's surface.
• GPS (Global Positioning System): A satellite-based navigation system
that provides location and time information anywhere on Earth where
there is an unobstructed line of sight to multiple GPS satellites.
 CO-ORDINATE SYSTEM
A coordinate system in GIS is a framework used to define and represent locations on the Earth's
surface. It comprises two main components:
1. Vertical Component: This represents elevation or height above a reference point, though not
always utilized in all coordinate systems.
2. Horizontal Component: It includes latitude and longitude (geographic coordinate system) or
easting and northing (projected coordinate system) to specify positions on the Earth's surface.
2.1 Geographic Coordinate System (GCS):is a global system used to locate positions on the Earth's
surface.
Examples include:
- WGS84 (World Geodetic System 1984): Widely used for GPS and global mapping.
- NAD83 (North American Datum 1983): Commonly used in North America for surveying and
mapping.
2.2 Projected Coordinate System (PCS): is a system that takes the Earth's curved surface and represents
it as a flat plane by using mathematical transformations. Examples include:
- UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator): Divides the world into zones for more accurate mapping and
surveying.
- State Plane Coordinate System (SPCS): Used in the United States for regional mapping and
cadastral work.
Latitude and longitude vary in distance, making precise measurement challenging. Projected
Coordinate Systems (PCS) convert 3D geographic coordinates to 2D, aiding accuracy.
2.3 Local Coordinate Systems: These are specific to smaller regions or projects. Examples include custom
grid systems used for city planning or construction projects.
• India, like many other countries, uses various map projections for
different purposes. Commonly used map projections in India
include:
1. Lambert Conformal Conic: Often used for mapping regions that
extend in the east-west direction. It preserves shapes and
distances along specific lines or parallels.
2. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM): UTM divides the world
into 60 zones,each 6 degrees of longitude wide,In India mainly
falling in zones 43 to 48, enhancing mapping accuracy for specific
regions.
3. Robinson Projection: Employed for general mapping purposes,
providing a compromise between size, shape, and distance
distortions. It's suitable for displaying the entire country or the
world in a balanced manner.
4. Albers Equal Area Conic: Sometimes used to portray India as it
accurately represents areas but distorts shapes and distances.
 MAP PROJECTION
Map projection: A method used to represent the three-dimensional surface of the Earth on a two-
dimensional map,due to the curved nature of the globe.
1. Cylindrical Projections: These project the Earth's surface onto a cylinder. Examples include the
Mercator projection, which preserves direction but distorts size towards the poles.
2. Conic Projections: These project the Earth's surface onto a cone. The Albers Equal Area Conic
projection preserves area but distorts shape and distance.
3. Azimuthal Projections: These project the Earth's surface onto a plane. The Gnomonic projection
preserves great circles but distorts areas away from the center point.
4. Compromise Projections: It minimizes distortions across maps, aiming for a balanced
representation without perfect preservation of any single property. The Winkel Tripel is a classic
example, reducing size, shape, and direction distortions for a visually balanced world map.
5. Pseudo-cylindrical Projections: It reduces the distortions across maps by balancing size and
shape, as seen in the widely-used Robinson projection for world maps.
• Robinson projection: is a map projection of a world map that shows the entire world at once.
• Winkel tripel projection (Winkel III), a modified azimuthal map projection of the world.
Compromise Projection
Winkel tripel projection

Robinson projection
 ADVANTAGES OF GIS
1. Spatial Analysis: GIS enables in-depth spatial analysis, allowing users to examine relationships, patterns, and trends within geographic data.
2. Data Integration: GIS integrates diverse data sets, including spatial and non-spatial information, providing a comprehensive view for decision-making.
3. Decision Support: GIS provides valuable decision support tools by visualizing complex data, helping in planning, analysis, and problem-solving.
4. Mapping and Visualization: GIS creates high-quality maps and visualizations, aiding in the interpretation and communication of spatial information.
5. Improved Planning: GIS supports efficient urban and regional planning by analyzing land use, infrastructure, and environmental factors.
6. Resource Management: GIS facilitates better management of natural resources, including forests, water, and agriculture, through spatial modeling
and monitoring.
7. Emergency Management: GIS is crucial in disaster response and emergency management, aiding in risk assessment, planning evacuation routes, and
resource allocation.
8. Efficient Asset Management: GIS assists in the management of infrastructure and assets by providing tools for maintenance, tracking, and
optimization.
9. Cost Savings: GIS helps in optimizing routes, reducing travel time, and improving resource allocation, leading to cost savings in transportation and
logistics.
10. Public Health Planning: GIS supports public health initiatives by mapping disease outbreaks, analyzing healthcare access, and planning vaccination
campaigns.
11.Environmental Impact Assessment: GIS is used to assess the environmental impact of development projects, aiding in sustainable land use
and conservation efforts.
12.Precision Agriculture: GIS enables precision farming by analyzing soil characteristics, optimizing irrigation, and monitoring crop health.
13.Business Intelligence: GIS contributes to business intelligence by analyzing market trends, customer demographics, and site selection for
retail businesses.
14. Data Accuracy and Quality: GIS promotes data accuracy and quality by providing tools for data validation, editing, and updating.
15.Community Engagement: GIS supports community engagement by visualizing proposed projects, soliciting feedback, and involving the
public in decision-making processes.
16.Crime Mapping and Analysis: GIS is used in law enforcement for crime mapping, hotspot analysis, and resource allocation to enhance public
safety.
17.Infrastructure Planning: GIS aids in the planning and design of infrastructure projects, such as roads, utilities, and telecommunications.
18.Educational Tool: GIS serves as an educational tool, helping students understand geography, spatial relationships, and data analysis.
19.Global Collaboration: GIS facilitates global collaboration by providing a common platform for sharing and analyzing spatial information
across borders.
20.Monitoring Change Over Time: GIS allows for the monitoring of changes over time, supporting longitudinal studies and trend analysis.
 LIMITATIONS AND CHALLENGES OF GIS
Certainly, GIS comes with its set of challenges and limitations that can impact its implementation and effectiveness:

Data Quality and Accuracy:

• Data Sources: Varied data sources might have inconsistencies, leading to inaccuracies and errors in analysis.
• Updates: Keeping data updated can be challenging, especially with rapidly changing information like real-time traffic
or weather.
Interoperability and Compatibility:
• Data Formats: Different GIS software may use incompatible data formats, causing issues in data exchange and
integration.
• Integration with other Systems: Integrating GIS with non-GIS systems might pose challenges due to differing
architectures.
Cost of Implementation and Maintenance:
• Software and Hardware Costs: Procuring GIS software, hardware, and maintaining them can be expensive, especially
for specialized functionalities.
• Skilled Personnel: Hiring and retaining skilled GIS professionals adds to the overall cost.
Complexity and Learning Curve:
• Technical Expertise: Understanding GIS concepts and software requires specialized training, leading to a steep learning
curve for users.
• Complexity in Analysis: Performing complex spatial analysis might require advanced knowledge and skills.
Privacy and Security Concerns:
• Data Security: Protecting sensitive geographic information from unauthorized access or cyber threats poses a
challenge.
• Privacy Issues: Balancing the need for data collection and analysis while ensuring individual privacy can be challenging.
Scale and Resolution:
• Scale Limitations: GIS may face limitations in handling extremely large datasets or detailed high-resolution imagery.
• Resolution Constraints: Lower resolution data might not capture fine details needed for precise analysis.
 APPLICATION OF GIS
1-Urban Planning:
• GIS is used for land-use planning, zoning, and infrastructure development.
• Urban planners utilize GIS to analyze population distribution, traffic patterns, and environmental
impact assessments.
2-Environmental Management:
• GIS aids in mapping and monitoring environmental changes, such as deforestation, habitat loss,
and pollution.
• Conservation efforts benefit from GIS applications for biodiversity mapping and protected area
management.
3-Natural Resource Management:
• GIS is employed in forestry for inventory and sustainable management of forests.
• Agriculture benefits from GIS for precision farming, soil analysis, and water resource
management.
4-Emergency Management:
• GIS assists in disaster response by mapping affected areas, managing resources, and coordinating emergency
services.
• Evacuation planning and risk assessment are enhanced through GIS-based analyses.
5-Public Health:
• GIS supports disease mapping, epidemiological studies, and healthcare planning.
• Monitoring and controlling the spread of diseases, such as tracking the COVID-19 pandemic, benefit from
GIS.
6-Transportation and Logistics:
• GIS is used for route optimization, traffic management, and planning public transportation networks.
• Logistics companies use GIS for fleet management and supply chain optimization.
7-Utilities Management:
• GIS aids in the planning, maintenance, and monitoring of utility networks, including water, electricity, and
telecommunications.
• Asset management and infrastructure planning are facilitated through GIS.
8-Defense and Security:
• GIS plays a crucial role in military operations for terrain analysis, mission planning,
and threat assessment.
• Border surveillance and national security benefit from GIS-based spatial intelligence.
9-Tourism and Recreation:
• GIS is used for tourist mapping, route planning, and identifying points of interest.
• Recreation planning, including park management and outdoor activity mapping,
utilizes GIS.
10-Real Estate and Property Management:
• GIS is utilized for property mapping, site selection, and real estate market analysis.
• Property valuation and land parcel management benefit from GIS applications.
 FUTURE OF GIS
1. Integration with Emerging Technologies:
• AI and Machine Learning: Integration of AI algorithms for automated analysis, pattern recognition, and
predictive modeling within GIS applications.
• Internet of Things (IoT): Integration with IoT devices to collect real-time data, enhancing GIS capabilities in
monitoring and decision-making.
2. Cloud-Based GIS:
• Increased Cloud Adoption: Greater reliance on cloud-based GIS platforms for scalability, accessibility, and
collaboration, enabling easier data sharing and analysis.
3. Spatial Data Analytics:
• Big Data and Real-Time Analysis: Handling and analyzing massive volumes of data in real-time for quicker
and more accurate decision-making.
• Spatial Data Science: Advancements in spatial statistics and data science techniques within GIS for more
sophisticated analysis.
4. 3D and Immersive GIS:
• 3D Visualization: Advancements in rendering technologies for more immersive 3D mapping and
visualization, facilitating better understanding and analysis of spatial data.
5. Mobile and Location-Based Services (LBS):
• Mobile GIS: Increasing reliance on mobile GIS applications for field data collection, navigation,
and location-based services.
• Augmented Reality (AR) in GIS: AR integration for overlaying spatial data onto the physical
environment for enhanced understanding and decision-making.
6. Open Data and Collaboration:
• Open Data Initiatives: Continued emphasis on open data policies and initiatives, fostering
collaboration and innovation in GIS applications.
• Crowdsourcing and Citizen Science: Integration of crowd-contributed data for mapping,
monitoring, and problem-solving.
7. Environmental and Climate Applications:
• Climate Resilience Planning: Expanded use of GIS in assessing climate risks, planning adaptation strategies,
and supporting resilience efforts.
• Environmental Monitoring: Enhanced monitoring of environmental changes, biodiversity, and ecosystem
health through GIS technologies.
8. Autonomous Systems and Robotics:
• Integration with Autonomous Vehicles: GIS applications supporting autonomous navigation and decision-
making for vehicles and drones.
9. Continued Interdisciplinary Applications:
• Cross-Industry Integration: Further integration of GIS across various sectors like healthcare, retail, agriculture,
and finance for better decision-making and efficiency.
10. Ethical and Responsible GIS:
• Ethical Considerations: Emphasis on ethical use, data privacy, and responsible handling of spatial data in GIS
applications.