04 Imperfections
04 Imperfections
04 Imperfections
Crystalline Imperfections
Chapter 4-
Today’s Agenda
Processing Structure Properties Performance
Atomic/Molecular St.Mechanical
x: casting Cost
Bond structure Electrical Reliability
Crystal Structure Optical Efficiency
Defect Structures Thermal Service Life
Microstructure Magnetic ...
Energy Band Structure
Melt
SOLIDIFICATION
Chapter 4-
Solidification of Metals
• The solidification of metals and alloys is an
important industrial process since most metals are
melted and then cast into semifinished of finished
shape.
• When molten alloys are cast, solidification starts
at the walls of the mold.
Chapter 4-
1. Solidification of
•
Polycrystalline Material
Almost all engineering crystalline materials are
composed of many crystals.
• Two steps of solidification:
1.Nucleation: Formation of stable nuclei in the melt
2.Growth: Crystals grow until they meet each other
Liquid
Nuclei
Crysta Grains
ls
that
will Grain
form boundari
grains es Chapter 4-
Perfect Structure
Chapter 4-
CRYSTALLINE IMPERFECTIONS
Chapter 4-1
Imperfections in Solids
Is it enough to know
bonding and structure
of materials to
estimate their macro
BONDING properties ?
+ PROPERTIES
STRUCTURE Color/Price of Precious
Stones
+ Mechanical Properties
of Metals
DEFECTS Properties of
Semiconductors
Defects Corrosion
do have of a Metals
significant impact on
the properties Chapter
of 4-
(II) oxide Blue-green
ur yellow
black
nium ruby red
nium yellow-Brown
ium Fluorescent yellow-green
Chapter 4-
Chapter 4-
Imperfections in Solids
tals in nature are never perfect, they have defects
Defects in Solids
0-D, Point defects
Vacancy Atoms in irregular
Interstitial
PROPERTIES
positions
MATERIALS
Substitutional
1-D, Line Defects / Dislocations
Planes or groups of
Edge atoms in irregular
Screw positions
2-D, Area Defects / Grain boundaries
Interfaces between
Tilt homogeneous regions of
Twist atoms
3-D, Bulk or Volume defects
Crack, pore
Secondary Phase Chapter 4-
Imperfections in Solids
Atomic Composition
Thermo-Mechanical
Bonding
Processing
Microstructure:
Materials properties
X’tal Structure
Chapter 4-
Perfection…
In terms of:
1. Chemical composition – pure
2. Atomic arrangement – defect free
Chapter 4-
Classification of Defects
Chapter 4-
0 dim: Point Defects
- localized disruption in regularity of the lattice
- on and between lattice sites Vacancy Substitutiona
3 Types :
1. Substitutional Impurity
- occupies normal lattice site
- dopant ☺, e.g., P in Si
- contaminant Li+ in NaCl
InterstitialSelf-interstitial
2. Interstitial Impurity
- occupies position between lattice sites
- alloying element ☺, e.g., C in Fe
- contaminant, H in Fe
3. Vacancy
- unoccupied lattice site
- formed at time of crystallization 14
Chapter 4-
POINT DEFECTS
• Vacancies:
acant atomic/lattice sites in a structure.
Vacancy
distortion
of planes
• Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.
self-
distortion interstitial
of planes
Chapter 4-3
EQUIL. CONCENTRATION:
POINT DEFECTS
• Equilibrium concentration varies with temperatur
ND Q
exp
D
N kT
No. of potential Temperature
defect sites. Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10-23 J/atom K)
(8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom K)
Each lattice site
is a potential
vacancy site
Chapter 4-4
MEASURING ACTIVATION ENERGY
ND ND slope
1
ln
N N
-QD/k
exponential
dependence!
T 1/T
defect concentration
Chapter 4-5
ESTIMATING VACANCY CONC.
• Find the equilibrium # of vacancies in 1m3
of Cu at 1000C.
• Given:
/cm3
= 8.4 g ACu = 63.5g/mol
QV = 0.9eV/atomNA = 6.02 x 10 23 atoms/mole
0.9eV/atom
ND Q
exp D
-4
= 2.7 · 10
N kT
1273K
8.62 x 10-5 eV/atom-K
NA
For 1m3, N = x x 1m3 = 8.0 x 1028 sites
ACu
• Answer:
ND =2.7 · 10-4 · 8.0 x 10
28 sites =2.2x 1025 vacancies
Chapter 4-
Point Defects: Vacancies &
Interstitials
• Most common defects in
crystalline solids are
point defects.
• At high temperatures,
atoms frequently and
randomly change their
positions leaving behind
empty lattice sites.
• In general, diffusion
(mass transport by atomic
motion) - can only occur
because of vacancies.
Chapter 4-
Exercise on Point Defects
Schematic representation
of a variety of point
defects: ANSWER
(1) vacancy;
Ei > Ev , so ?
(2) self-interstitial;
less distortion cau
(3) interstitial
impurity;
(4,5) substitutional
impurities
Chapter 4-11
WEB SITE
http://professor.wiley.com/CGI-BIN/LANSAWEB?PROCFUN+PROF1+PRFFN22
Chapter 4-
Dislocations
Chapter 4-
Issue at Hand
Slip Plane
DISLOCATION CORE:
Induces a stress field due to local
distortions in the structure
Chapter 4-
27
DISLOCATIONS
Dislocation motion is analogous to movement
of a caterpillar:
The caterpillar instead of spending a lot
of energy to move its entire body at once,
moves its forward a bit and creates a hump,
ie a dislocation ! The hump then
propagates along the caterpillar and moves
the caterpillar by a small amount.
Chapter 4-
DISLOCATIONS & CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
• Structure: close- view onto two
packed close-packed
planes.
planes &
directions
are preferred. close-packed directions
close-packed plane (bottom)close-packed plane (top)
• Comparison among crystal structures:
FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
total # is 12
HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none
Zn hcp crystal
Chapter 4-14
Close Packed Structures
Chapter 4-
Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation in
metals is produced by
movement of dislocations or
slips, which can be
considered analogous to the
distortion produced in a
deck of cards.
Chapter 4-
Dislocations and Materials
Strength
• FCC metals are in general more
ductile; plastically deform well
before failure
• HCP metals are in general less
ductile
• BCC metals are stronger due to
intersecting slip planes;
limited dislocation activity;
work harden very quickly
Chapter 4-
Imperfections in Solids
Dislocations are visible in electron micrographs
Easily form
dislocations and
allow mobility;
Not limited with
coordination numbers
Remember Covalent
Bond !
How many bonds to
break ?
Finding an equivalent
site ?
Very large Burgers
vector size;
Finding an equivalent
site and overcoming
repulsive forces ! Chapter 4-
Interfacial Defects - Planar
Defects
Grain Boundaries:
Surface imperfections in polycrystalline materials that
separate grains (crystals) of different orientation.
Photomicrographs of
SEM (Scanning electron microscope) 37
typical microstructures
Chapter 4-
image of annealed brass
Planar Defects in Solids
• One case is a twin boundary (plane)
– Essentially a reflection of atom positions across the twin plane.
• Stacking faults
– For FCC metals an error in ABCABC packing sequence
– Ex: ABCABABC
Chapter 4-
Imperfections in Solids
Grain Boundaries
• regions between
crystals
• transition from lattice
of one region to that
of the other
• slightly disordered
• low density in grain
boundaries
– high mobility
– high diffusivity
– high chemical reactivity
Chapter 4-
Chapter 4-
Chapter 4-
AREA DEFECTS: GRAIN BOUNDARIES
Grain boundaries:
• are boundaries between crystals.
• are produced by the solidification
process, for example.
• have a change in crystal Metal
orientation
across them.
Schematic Ingot~ 8cm
• impede dislocation motion.
grain
boundaries
heat
flow Adapted from
Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister Fig. 4.10, Callister 6e. (Fig. 4.10 is from
6e. Metals Handbook, Vol. 9, 9th edition,
Metallography and Microstructures, Am. Society
Chapter 4-15
for Metals, Metals Park, OH, 1985.)
3 Dim: Volume Defects
• Form when a cluster of point defects join
• Vacancies join:
– voids
– Pores F. Gao,J. Qu, Materials Letters Volume 73, 15
Apr.2012, 92–94
• Cracks
• Cluster of impurity
atoms join
precipitate
Chapter 4-
SUMMARY
Atomic Composition
Thermo-Mechanical
Bonding
Processing
MICROSTRUCTURE
X’tal Structure
Chapter 4-
Disorder
Grains
46
Chapter 4-
Summary
• Point, Line, and Area defects exist in solids.
Chapter 4-