Chapter -1 : Introduction to Electrical

Machines-I
At the completion of this chapter, you should be able to
 Build strong foundation in the basic principles of magnetic
circuits and electromagnetic energy conversion.

 Acquire and apply fundamental principles of science and

engineering.
 Identify, formulate and model problems and find engineering
solutions based on a systems approach.
 Work independently as well as with others in a team.

 Communicate effectively.

1
Review of Previous materials

1. Mechanical energy(movement)
2. Rotational energy(movement about an axis-circular)
3. Electrical energy(electron flow)
4. Work (application of force through a distance)
5. Power(rate of doing work)
6. Efficiency(output / input)

2
Unit Conversions & Dimensional Analysis

* Power (Watts)

* Alternative units that may be used

hp (horsepower)=746 W
* Electric Potential(Volts)

* Current(Amperes), A

* Resistance(Ohms)

* SI units(Volts, Amperes, Ohms, Watts)

* English units(inches, feet, pounds etc.).

3
 Introduction to Machinery Principles

An electric machine:
is a device that can convert either mechanical energy to electric energy or
vice versa.

A generator :
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

A motor:
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy.

Another closely related device is the transformer.

4
Introduction to Machinery Principles . . . . .

A transformer:
is a device that converts ac electrical energy at one voltage level to ac electrical
energy at another voltage level, but with the same frequency.

In general, transformers operate on the same principles as generators and

motors, and are usually studied together with generators and motors.

Applications in modern daily life.

*Motors find applications in several home appliances.

*In the work place, motors provide the motive power for
almost all tools.

*Generators are essential to supply the power used by all these

5
motors.
Introduction to Machinery Principles . . . . .

The electromagnetic system is a necessary element of all rotating and static

electric machinery and electromechanical devices.

The role of electromagnetic system is to establish and control electromagnetic

fields for carrying out conversion of energy, and transfer.

Practically all motors and generators, depend upon the magnetic field as the
coupling medium allowing interchange of energy in either direction between
electrical and mechanical systems.

A transformer though not an electromechanical conversion device, provides a

means of transferring electrical energy between two electrical ports via the
medium of a magnetic field.
6
INTRODUCTION . . . . .

It is, therefore, seen that all electric machines including

transformers use the medium of magnetic field for energy
conversion and transfer.

V, I

Electrical Coupling Mechanical

System System System

Block diagram representation of electromechanical energy conversion

7
Converting Energy (Power)

 Generator
  V, I
Mechanical Power Electrical Power
Magnetic field

 Motor
V, I Magnetic field  
Electrical Power Mechanical Power

 Transformer
Magnetic field
Electrical Power Electrical Power
V, I V, I 8
DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES

Magnet:

It is a substance having the properties of attracting iron and its alloys.

Magnetic field:

It is defined as the region of space around a magnet in which there

exists a magnetic force (either force of attraction or force of repulsion).

Magnetic lines

These are the imaginary lines of force in a magnetic field which start
from the North pole, pass through air or magnetic medium, and end at
South pole.
9
DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES . . . . .

Magnetic circuit:

It is a continuous path occupied by magnetic lines of force.

Magnetic flux:
It is the number of lines of magnetic force crossing the space occupied by
a magnetic field().

Magneto-motive-force (m.m.f):
It drives magnetic flux to flow through magnetic circuit and is the analogy
to e.m.f. in electric circuit. It is equal to the effective current flow applied to
the core (Ni). Its unit is Ampere-turn.

10
 DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES . . . . .

Ampere-turn (AT):
It is the unit for mmf and is given by the product of number of turns of
magnetic circuit and the current flowing in the turns (Ni ).

Reluctance () :

This is the term given to the material characteristics that resist the
generation of magnetic flux inside it.
It is the opposition offered by a magnetic path to the establishment of a
magnetic flux and is the analogy to resistance in electric circuit. (AT/Wb)

Reluctance, l l
Resistance R = 
A 1
  A
Where ( μ ) is Permeability 
11
DEFINITION OF MAGNETIC QUANTITIES . . . . .

Permeance:
Permeance is reciprocal to reluctance. It is also the analogy to
conductance in electric circuit.

Residual magnetism:
It is the magnetism which remains in a material even the
effective magnetizing force has been reduced to zero.

12
MAGNETIC FIELD

The magnetic field in a machine forms the energy link between

the electrical and mechanical systems.
It is produced by currents flowing in coils of wire inside the
machine, or by a combination of coils and permanent magnets.

1. Ampere Law:
A current-carrying wire (conductor) produces a magnetic
field in the area around it.

H  dI  I net
13
MAGNETIC FIELD . . . .

2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a

coil of wire if it passes through that coil. This is the basis
of transformer action. (Faraday’s Law)

3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic

field has a force induced on it. This is the basis of motor
action.
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field
has a voltage induced in it. This is the basis of the
generator action.(Faraday’s Law)

14
 PRODUCTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

Figure shows a
rectangular core with a
winding of N turns of
wire wrapped around
one leg of the core.

If the core is composed of iron or certain other similar metals,

essentially all the magnetic field produced by the current will remain
inside the core 15
PRODUCTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD . . . .

According to Ampere’s Law for the production of a magnetic field by a

current:

H  dI  I net
Where H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current I net.

So the path of integration in Ampere’s law is the mean path length of the core
lc.

The current passing within the path of integration I net is then Ni, since the coil
of wire cuts the path of integration N times while carrying current i.

16
PRODUCTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD . . . .

Ampere’s law thus becomes H lc  N i

Therefore, the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity in the core due to the
applied current is
Ni
H 
lc
The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core (H) also depends
on the material of the core.
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity (H) and the resulting
magnetic flux density B produced within a material is given by

B  H  = magnetic permeability of material

B = resulting magnetic flux density produced.
  0  r 17
PRODUCTION OF MAGNETIC FIELD . . . .

The permeability of free space is called  0, and is given by

0  4 10 7 H/m
Relative permeability (r) is a convenient way to compare the permeability
of materials.
Ni
Therefore the magnitude of the flux density is given by B  H 
lc
The equation for total flux is   BA
Thus, the total flux in the core due to the current i in the winding is
NiA
  BA 
lc
where A is the cross-sectional area of the core . 18
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS
It is a continuous path occupied by magnetic lines of force.
Magnetic circuit is analogous to an electric circuit.

In a simple electric circuit, the voltage source V drives a current I

across a resistance R.
In the electric circuit, it is the voltage or electromotive force that
19
drives the current flow.
MAGNETIC CIRCUITS . . . . .

By analogy, the corresponding quantity in the magnetic circuit is

called the magnetomotive force (mmf).
The polarity of the mmf from a coil of wire can be determined as
follows:
If the fingers of the
right hand curl in the
direction of the current
flow in a coil of wire,
then thumb will point
in the direction of the
positive mmf.
20
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS . . . . .

The mmf of the magnetic circuit is equal to the effective current

flow applied to the core, or F=  

Where F = magnetomotive force of the circuit

= flux of the circuit
= reluctance of the circuit
lc
We see that the reluctance of the core is 
A
Reluctances in a magnetic circuit obey the same rules as
resistances in an electric circuit.

21
 MAGNETIC CIRCUITS . . . . .

The equivalent reluctance of a number of reluctances in series is

just the sum of the individual reluctances:

eq 1  2  3  4  5  ...

Similarly, reluctances in parallel combine according to the

equation

1 1 1 1 1 1
     ...
eq 1 2 3  4 5

22
LEAKAGE FLUX
In all practical magnetic circuits, most of the flux is confined to
the intended path by use of magnetic cores but a small amount of
flux always leaks through the surrounding air.
This stray flux is called the leakage flux.

iP(t)
+
+
vP(t) ~ vS(t)
-
-

23
Leakage flux, LP Mutual flux, M Leakage flux, LS
LEAKAGE FLUX . . . .

Leakage is characteristic of all magnetic circuits and can never be

fully eliminated.
Calculations concerning the main magnetic circuit are usually
carried out with the effect of leakage flux either ignored or
empirically accounted for.
Special studies of leakage must be made for ac machines and
transformers since their performance is affected by it.

24
 FRINGING

At an air-gap in a magnetic core, the flux fringes out into

neighboring air paths as shown in Figure below.

The result is non-uniform flux density in the air-gap (decreasing

outward), enlargement of the effective air-gap area and a decrease in
the average gap flux density.
25
FRINGING . . . .

The effect of fringing increases with the air-gap length.

lg
The gap reluctance would now be given by  g  Ag > A
0 Ag
Fringing increases the cross sectional area of the air gap.

26
INDUCTION

Self induction
Self-induction is the phenomenon whereby a change in the current
in a conductor induces an emf in the conductor itself.
i.e., when a conductor is given a current, flux will be produced,
and if the current is changed the flux also changes.
Magnetic lines of force

S N

Current, i
Variable ac supply

~ 27
SELF INDUCTION . . . .

As per Faraday’s Law when there is a change of flux, an emf will

be induced.
This is called self induction.
The induced emf will be always opposite in direction to the
applied Voltage that produce the current flow.
The opposing emf thus produced is called the counter emf of self
induction.

28
 MUTUAL INDUCTION
It is the electromagnetic induction produced by one circuit in the nearby circuit
due to the variable flux of the first circuit cutting the conductor of the nearby
circuit.

When two coils are kept near to each other and if a variable current is given to one
coil, the flux produced due to that variable current cuts both the coils, and an emf will
be induced in both the coils.
29
MUTUAL INDUCTION . . . . .

The phenomenon by which emf is induced in the second coil due

to the variation of current in first coil is called mutual induction.
Both the circuits have no electrical contacts with each other but
magnetic linkages.
This principle is applied in transformers, induction coils, etc.

30
MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS

Normally magnetic circuit calculations involve two types of problems.

In the first type of problem it is required to determine the excitation (mmf)

needed to establish a desired flux or flux density at a given point in a magnetic
circuit.

In the second category the flux (or flux density) is unknown and is required to
be determined for a given geometry of the magnetic circuit and specified mmf.

31
 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS . . . . .

CORE WITH AIR-GAP

Transformers are wound on closed cores.

Rotating machines have a moving element and must therefore
have air-gaps in the cores out of necessity.
A typical magnetic circuit with an air-gap is shown in Figure
below.

32
 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS . . . . .

CORE WITH AIR-GAP. . . . .

It is assumed that the air-gap is narrow and the flux coming out of the core
passes straight down the air-gap such that the flux density in the air-gap is the
same as in the core.
Actually the flux in the gap fringes out so that the gap flux density is somewhat
less than that of the core.
The mmf (Ni) is now consumed in the core plus the air-gap.
From the Figure, F =Ni = Hclc + Hglg
Bc Bg
Ni  lc  lg
c 0
Assuming that all the core flux passes straight down the air-gap , i.e., no fringing
effect,
Bg = Bc   Bc A  B g A
33
 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS . . . . .

CORE WITH AIR-GAP. . . . .

Bc Bg Bg = Bc
Ni  lc  lg
c 0   Bc A  B g A
 lc   l g 
N i       
 
 c A   0 A 
lc
F   c   g   eq
c   core reluctance
c A
lg
g   air-gap reluctance
0 A
Which means that in a magnetic circuit with air-gap, core reluctance may be
neglected with no significant loss of accuracy.
This assumption will be generally made in modeling rotating machines .
34
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF FERROMAGNETIC
MATERIALS

If we apply a direct current to the core, starting with 0 A and slowly working
up to the maximum permissible current.
When the flux produced in the core is plotted versus the mmf producing it, the
resulting plot looks like figure below.

knee
Saturated region

Unsaturated/linear region

35
 MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS. . . .

This type of plot is called a saturation curve or a magnetization

curve.
At first, a small increase in the mmf produces a huge increase in the resulting
flux.

After a certain point, though, the mmf increases there is a relatively smaller
increase in the flux.

Finally, an increase in the magnetomotive force produces almost no change at

all.
The region in which the curve flattens out is called the saturation region, and
the core is said to be saturated.

36
MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS. . . .

In contrast, the region where the flux changes very rapidly is called the
unsaturated (Linear )region of the curve, and the core is said to be
unsaturated.

The transition region between the unsaturated region and the saturated region is
sometimes called the knee of the curve.

Note that the flux produced in the core is linearly related to the applied mmf in
the unsaturated region.

From the figure, it is seen that the relationship between B and H has the same
shape as the relationship between flux and mmf.

37
 MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS. . . .

ENERGY LOSSES IN A FERROMAGNETIC CORE

Instead of applying a direct current to the core, lets apply an alternating

current.
Assume that the flux in the core is initially zero.
As the current increases for the first time, the flux in the core traces out path ab
in figure.

This is basically the saturation curve explained above.

However, when the current falls again, the flux traces out a different path from
the one it followed when the current was increased.

As the current decreases, the flux in the core traces out path bcd, and later
when the current increases again, the flux traces out path deb.

38
 MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS. . . .
ENERGY LOSSES IN A FERROMAGNETIC CORE . . . .

39
 MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR OF
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS. . . .

ENERGY LOSSES IN A FERROMAGNETIC CORE . . . .

Notice that the amount of flux present in the core depends not only on the
amount of current applied to the windings of the core, but also on the previous
history of the flux in the core.

This dependence on the preceding flux history and the resulting failure to
retrace flux path is called hysterisis.

Path bcdeb traced out in the figure is called a hysterisis loop.

40
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

HYSTERISIS LOSS

When the magneto-motive force is removed, the flux in the core does not go to
zero.

Instead, some magnetic flux is left in the core.

This magnetic flux is called the residual flux in the core.

It is precisely the manner that permanent magnets are produced.

To force the flux to zero, an amount of mmf known as the Coercive magneto-
motive force must be applied to the core in the opposite direction.

41
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

HYSTERISIS LOSS . . . .

To understand the behaviour of ferromagnetic materials, it is necessary to know

about their structure.

Within the metal, there are many small regions called domains.

In each domain, all the atoms are aligned with their magnetic fields pointing in
the same direction, so each domain within the material acts as a small
permanent magnet.

The reason that a whole block of iron can appear to have no flux is that these
numerous tiny domains are oriented randomly within the material as shown in
figure.

42
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

HYSTERISIS LOSS . . . .

Fig. a Fig. b

Fig. a : Magnetic domains oriented randomly.

Fig. b : Magnetic domains lined up in the presence of an external
magnetic field. 43
 Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .
HYSTERISIS LOSS . . . .
When an external magnetic field is applied to this block of iron, it causes
domains tend to align themselves in an orderly fashion in the direction of
applied magnetic field.

As the strength of the external magnetic field continues to increase, whole

domains that are aligned in the wrong direction re-orient themselves as a unit
to line up with the external field.
The key to hysteresis is that when the external magnetic field is removed, the
domains do not completely randomize again.

Why do the domains remain lined up?

Because turning the atoms in them requires energy.
Originally, energy was provided by the external magnetic field to accomplish the
alignment; when the field is removed, there is no source of energy to cause all the
domains to rotate back. 44
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

HYSTERISIS LOSS . . . .

The piece of iron is now a permanent magnet.

Once the domains are aligned, some of them will remain aligned until a source
of external energy is supplied to change them.

Examples of external sources of energy that can change the alignment are: a
large mechanical shock, heating, etc.
Hysteresis Loss:
The hysteresis loss in an iron core is the energy required to accomplish the re-
orientation of domains during each cycle of the ac applied to the core.

45
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

HYSTERISIS LOSS . . . .

If the magnetizing force applied to a magnetic material is carried through a

complete cycle from +Hmax to –Hmax and back to +Hmax, the B-H characteristic
is described by a hysterisis loop as shown in figure.
The area of the loop represents the energy loss in a unit cube of the core
material during one cycle.

The hysterisis loss is expressed empirically as

n
Ph  f Bmax
Where the value of n depends on the nature of the core
material. n may vary between 1.5 and 2.5 for different
materials. However, the hysterisis loss varies directly as
the frequency for a given Bmax.
46
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

EDDY CURRENT LOSS

A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic

core in just the same manner as it would in a wire wrapped
around that core.

These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core

It is the shape of these currents that gives rise to the name eddy
currents.
These eddy currents are flowing in a resistive material (the iron of
the core), so energy is dissipated by them.
The lost energy goes into heating the iron core.
47
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

EDDY CURRENT LOSS . . . . .
The amount of energy lost due to eddy currents (eddy current loss) is
proportional to the size of the paths they follow within the core.
For this reason, it is customary to break up any ferromagnetic core into many
small strips or laminations, and to build the core up out of these strips.

The iron in the magnetic circuits is laminated to prevent excessive eddy currents.

An insulating resin is used between the strips, so that the current paths for eddy
currents are limited to very small areas.

Because the insulating layers are extremely thin, this action reduces eddy current
losses with very little effect on the core’s magnetic properties.

48
 Magnetic behavior of Ferromagnetic materials. . .

Energy losses in a ferromagnetic core . . . .

EDDY CURRENT LOSS . . . . .

The eddy current loss can also be expressed in terms of the applied voltage and
the number of turns in the exciting winding when the resistance of the winding is
negligible.

The expression is

2 2
Pe  f B max

49