GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

CHAMARAJNAGAR-571313
DEPT. OF ECE

Optical & Wireless Communication

21EC72
MODULE 3
Presented by: Dr. Imran Khan
 Contents:
 Mobile Communication Engineering:
 Wireless Network generations,
 Basic propagation Mechanisms,
 Mobile radio Channel.
 Principles of Cellular Communications:
 Cellular terminology,
 Cell structure and Cluster,
 Frequency reuse concept,
 Cluster size and system capacity,
 Frequency Reuse Distance,
 Cochannel Interference and signal quality
The three basic propagation mechanisms in
wireless communication are
reflection,
diffraction, and
scattering
•Reflection
Occurs when a propagating electromagnetic
wave hits an obstacle that's much larger than
the wavelength of the wave.
For example, a solid wall can cause reflection.
•Diffraction
Occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface with sharp edges.
•Scattering
Occurs when the medium has objects that are
smaller or comparable to the wavelength. For
example, foliage, street signs, or small objects
The three basic propagation mechanisms in
wireless communication are
reflection,
diffraction, and
scattering
•Reflection
Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave
impinges upon an object which has very large dimensions
when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave.
Reflections occur from the surface of the earth and from
buildings and walls.
The three basic propagation mechanisms in
wireless communication are
reflection,
diffraction, and
scattering
•Diffraction
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that has
sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting
from the obstructing surface are present throughout the space
and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of
waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path
does not exist between transmitter and receiver. At high
frequencies, diffraction, like reflection depends on the
geometry of the object, as well as the amplitude, phase, and
polarisation of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.
The three basic propagation mechanisms in
wireless communication are
reflection,
diffraction, and
scattering
•Scattering
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave
travels consists of objects with dimensions that are small
compared to the wavelength, and where the number of
obstacles per unit volume is large. Scattered waves are
produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other
irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs,
and lamp posts induce scattering in a mobile communications
system.
The three basic propagation mechanisms in
wireless communication are
reflection,
diffraction, and
scattering

Other factors that affect signal propagation

include:
•Terrain contours
•Environment (urban or rural, vegetation and
foliage)
•Frequency
•The distance between the transmitter and the
receiver
•The height and location of antennas
SOME DEFINITIONS
Delay spread is the spreading of a signal in time, while coherence
bandwidth is the range of frequencies that a channel
treats similarly:
Delay spread στ
The maximum delay of the most significant multipath
components. It's the difference between the path delays of the
first and last detectable copies of a signal.
Coherence bandwidth Bc
The range of frequencies over which a channel can be considered
flat, meaning it passes all spectral components with roughly
equal gain and linear phase. Signals separated in frequency by
the coherence bandwidth have independent fading.
The values of delay spread and coherence bandwidth, along with
the transmitted signal bandwidth and symbol duration, can help
determine if a channel is experiencing flat fading or frequency-
selective fading.
Doppler spread and coherence time are both parameters that
describe the frequency-dispersion nature of a mobile channel:
Doppler spread
A measure of the range of frequencies over which the received
Doppler spectrum is non-zero. It's caused by the time-varying
multipath effects in a mobile channel.
Coherence time
The time duration over which the channel impulse response is
considered to be not varying. It characterizes the time-varying
nature of the channel.
Doppler spread and coherence time are related by the following:
Relationship: The maximum Doppler shift determines the
coherence time.
Effect of operating frequency: A system operating at a higher
frequency has a smaller coherence time and faster fading.
 MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
In a mobile communication system, a signal experiences
multipath propagation which causes rapid signal level
fluctuations in time, called fading.
Mobile radio channels introduce
noise,
fading,
interference, and other distortions into the signals that
they transmit.
Fading effects that characterize mobile radio communication are
large-scale fading and
small-signal fading.
 MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
If there is a large number of multiple reflective paths with no
line-of-sight signal path, it is Rayleigh fading.
The Rayleigh flat-fading channel model assumes that the channel
induces amplitude which varies in time according to Rayleigh
distribution.
When there is a dominant non-fading signal component present,
the small-signal fading envelope is described by a Rician fading.
Small-signal fading results into signal dispersion and time-variant
behavior of the channel.
 MOBILE RADIO CHANNEL
Rayleigh and Rician fading phenomena include
multipath scattering effects,
time dispersion, and
Doppler shifts that arise from relative motion between the
transmitter and receiver.
The major paths result in the arrival of delayed versions of the
signal at the receiver.
In addition, the radio signal undergoes scattering on a local scale
for each major path. Such local scattering is typically
characterized by a large number of reflections by objects near
the mobile.
These irresolvable components combine at the receiver and give
rise to the phenomenon known as multipath fading.
As a result, each major path behaves as a discrete fading path.
 Multipath Fading
Fading of signal received by the mobile unit is an inherent
problem in mobile communication.
As the location of the mobile unit keeps on changing in real time,
the resultant radio signal incident on its antenna varies
continuously.
Multipath in the mobile communication channel creates small-
scale fading effects such as
 rapid changes in signal strength over a small time
interval or small distance traveled by a mobile;
 random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler
shifts on different multipath signals; and
 time dispersion caused by multipath propagation delays.
Fading is the rapid fluctuation of a radio signal’s amplitude in a
short time or over a short distance.
there are two main reasons that contribute to the rapid
fluctuations of the signal amplitude.
The first, caused by the addition of signals arriving via
different paths, is referred to as multipath fading.
The second, caused by the relative movement of the
mobile unit towards or away from the cell-site transmitter,
is called Doppler effect.
Other factors that influence small-scale fading include
multipath propagation,
speed of the mobile,
speed of the surrounding objects, and
the transmission bandwidth of the signal.
Suitable diversity reception or signal-processing techniques need
to be provided to minimize the impact of fading.
Multipath fading results in fluctuations of the signal amplitude
because of the addition of signals arriving with different phases.
This phase difference is caused due to the fact that signals have
traveled different path lengths.
Because the phase of the arriving paths are too changing rapidly,
the received signal amplitude undergoes rapid fluctuation that is
often modeled as a random variable with a particular
distribution, called Rayleigh distribution.
The multipath waves at the mobile receiver bounce back and
forth due to the surrounding buildings and other structures, as
shown in Fig.
When a mobile unit is stand-still, its receiver only receives a
signal strength at that spot, so a constant signal is observed.
When the mobile unit is moving, the fading structure of the
wave in the space is received.
It is a multipath fading which becomes fast as the vehicle moves
faster.
 Types of Small-Scale Fading
The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating through a
mobile communication channel depends on
 the nature of the transmitted signal with respect to the
characteristics of the wireless channel,
 the speed of the mobile, and
 the direction of motion of the mobile with respect to
the incoming received signal from the cell-site transmitter.
Fading effects in a mobile radio environment can be classified as
– fading effects due to multipath time delay spread; and
– fading effects due to Doppler spread
Due to multipath time-delay spread, fading effects can also be
classified as
flat fading and
frequency selective fading.
Flat fading, or non-selective fading, is that type of fading in which
all frequency components of the received signal fluctuates in the
same proportions simultaneously.
Flat fading occurs when the radio channel has a constant gain
and linear phase response but its bandwidth is greater than that
of the transmitted signal.
It implies that the desired signal bandwidth is narrower than,
and completely covered by, the spectrum affected by the fading.
In flat fading, the multipath structure of the channel is such that
the spectral characteristics of the transmitted signal are
preserved at the receiver.
However, the strength of the received signal changes with time
due to fluctuations in the gain of the channel caused by
multipath.
In a flat fading channel, sometimes referred to as a narrowband
channel, the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is much larger
than the reciprocal of the multipath time-delay spread of the
channel.
 Frequency-selective fading
Frequency-selective fading affects unequally the different
spectral components of a radio signal.
Selective fading is usually significant only relative to the
bandwidth of the overall wireless communication channel.
If the signal attenuates over a portion of the bandwidth of the
signal, the fading is considered to be selective in frequency
domain.
Frequency selective fading on the received signal occurs when a
radio channel has a constant gain and linear phase response, but
the channel bandwidth is less than that of the transmitted signal.
The received signal includes multiple versions of the transmitted
signal which are faded and delayed in time, and hence the
received signal is distorted.
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the
transmitted symbols within the channel, and the channel induces
intersymbol interference..
Fading is a phenomenon in wireless communication
that causes a signal's strength to fluctuate over time,
geographical location, or radio frequency:

•Causes
Fading can be caused by a number of factors,
including:
•Multipath propagation: When multiple copies of
a signal interfere with each other at the receiver

•Weather: Rain and other weather conditions can

cause fading

•Shadowing: Obstacles like buildings and vehicles

can block the signal

•Motion: The movement of a vehicle can cause

fading, with higher speeds resulting in faster fading
Fading is a phenomenon in wireless communication
that causes a signal's strength to fluctuate over time,
geographical location, or radio frequency:

•Effect
Fading can cause a cloudy pattern to appear on a
spectrogram, where time is on the horizontal axis,
frequency is on the vertical axis, and signal strength is
represented by grey-scale intensity

•Frequency-selective
Different frequency components of a signal can
experience different amounts of fading

A communication channel that experiences fading is

called a fading channel.
 Frequency-selective fading
Because this effect varies by frequency, fading is different at
different frequencies and it is extremely difficult to counter its
impact or compensate for the signal loss.
Frequency-selective fading channels are also known as wideband
channels since the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is wider
than the bandwidth of the channel impulse response.
the fades occur each time the mobile moves a distance of λc /2.
Given the frequency of the signal and the speed of the mobile, it
is easy to estimate the time between fades.
The time between fades is given by
Due to Doppler spread, fading effects can also be classified as
fast fading and slow fading.
Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal
changes as compared to the rate of change of the channel, a
wireless channel is classified as a fast fading or slow-fading
channel.
In fast-fading conditions, as the mobile unit moves down a street
in an urban environment, rapid fluctuations in received signal
strength occur over distances of about one-half a wavelength.
The channel impulse response changes rapidly within the symbol
duration.
That is, the coherence time of the channel is smaller than the
symbol period of the transmitted signal. This causes frequency
dispersion, also called time-selective fading, due to Doppler
spreading. This results into signal distortion which increases with
increasing Doppler spread relative to the bandwidth of the
transmitted signal.
Due to Doppler spread, fading effects can also be classified as
fast fading and slow fading.
Depending on how rapidly the transmitted baseband signal
changes as compared to the rate of change of the channel, a
wireless channel is classified as a fast fading or slow-fading
channel.
In a slow fading channel, the channel impulse response changes
at a rate much slower than the transmitted baseband signal. As
the mobile subscriber covers distances well in excess of a
wavelength, the urban environment changes, as the mobile
subscriber crosses buildings of different heights, busy
intersections, vacant spaces, and so forth.
 Effects of Multipath Fading
Fading may cause rapid changes in volume, random frequency
modulation, echoes, distortion, or a dropped call.
The listener notices all these effects of fading. Small-signal
fading results in very high bit-error rates.
In order to overcome the effects of small-signal fading, it is not
possible to simply increase the transmit power because this will
require a huge increase in the transmit power.
A variety of techniques are used to mitigate the effects of small-
signal fading such as error control coding with interleaving,
diversity schemes, and using directional antennas at the cell-
site.
Diversity techniques are useful to overcome the effects of fast
fading by providing multiple copies of the signal at the receiver.
 Doppler Shift
There is always a relative motion between the cell-site
transmitter and the mobile receiver.
As a result, Doppler effect occurs in the shift of the received
carrier frequency.
Doppler spectrum is the spectrum of the fluctuations of the
received signal strength.
Multipath fading provides the distributions of the amplitude of a
radio signal.
It is important to know for what time a signal strength will be
below a pre-defined threshold value, that is, the duration of
fade, and how often it crosses a threshold value, that is,
frequency of transitions or fading rate.
 Doppler Shift
Doppler effect results in the inaccurate operation of the system.
Proper compensation technique needs to be implemented to
minimize this effect.
A study of Doppler spectrum is important to design the coding
and interleaver schemes for efficient performance.
 the main causes of fading are
multipath propagation,
speed of mobile unit,
speed of reflecting objects, and
Doppler shift

Multipath propagation can result in a positive or

negative Doppler shift.
As mobile unit moves around, the resulting multipath
reception of waves reflected from different objects can also
result in a positive or negative Doppler shift
The Rayleigh distribution is often used to model the received
envelope of such a signal in a statistical, time-varying way.
Rayleigh fading is also called multipath fading in the mobile radio
environment.
Speed of reflecting objects can induce their own Doppler shift in
the reflected wave.
Doppler frequency or Doppler shift is given by
fd = (1/λc) Vm cos θ
where
λc is the wavelength of the carrier signal,
Vm is the relative velocity of the mobile,
the angle θ is between the motion of the mobile and direction of
arrival of the scattered waves, and
Vm cos θ represents the velocity component of the motion of the
mobile in the direction of the incoming signal.
The maximum Doppler frequency will be obtained when the
mobile unit is moving in line with the direction of the received
signal, that is, θ = 0 or cos θ = 1. Then the maximum Doppler
frequency is given by
fdm = Vm / λc = Vm fc / c
where λc = (c / fc)

When a pure sinusoidal carrier signal having frequency fc is

transmitted, the received signal spectrum, called the Doppler
spectrum, will have components in the range
fc – fd to fc + fd,
corresponding to whether the direction of motion of the mobile
is away from or towards the direction of the received signal
respectively. This simply means that Doppler shift will be positive
or negative depending on whether the mobile receiver is moving
toward or away from the base station transmitter
 Consider a base-station transmitter operating at 900 MHz
carrier frequency. For a mobile moving at a speed of 72 km/h,
calculate the received carrier frequency if the mobile is moving
(a) directly away from the base-station transmitter
(b) directly towards the base-station transmitter
(c) in a direction which is 60 degrees to the direction of arrival
of the transmitted signal
(d) in a direction perpendicular to the direction of arrival of the
transmitted signal
Solution
Carrier frequency of base station transmitter, fc = 900 MHz (given)
Speed of the mobile, Vm = 72 km/h (given) Or,
Vm = (72 × 103 )/3600 = 20 m/s
Cellular Communications
 Principles of Cellular Communications:

Cellular terminology,
Cell structure and Cluster,
Frequency reuse concept,
Cluster size and system capacity,
Frequency Reuse Distance,
Cochannel Interference and signal quality.
Cellular Terminology
Cell,
Base Station (BS), and
Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
Cellular Terminology
Cell,
Base Station (BS), and
Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
Cellular Terminology
Cell,
Base Station (BS), and
Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
Cell Structure and Clusters
Cell Structure and Clusters
 Frequency Reuse Concept
Frequency reuse is the technique of using the same radio
frequencies across several cell sites in a cellular network. The cells
are organized so that the same frequencies can be reused in non-
adjacent cells, which leads to reducing interference and increasing
spectrum efficiency.
What is Frequency Reuse?
Frequency Reuse is the scheme in which allocation and reuse of
channels throughout a coverage region is done. Each cellular base
station is allocated a group of radio channels or Frequency sub-
bands to be used within a small geographic area known as a cell.
The shape of the cell is Hexagonal. The process of selecting and
allocating the frequency sub-bands for all of the cellular base
stations within a system is called Frequency reuse or Frequency
Planning.
Frequency Reuse Concept
 Frequency Reuse Concept

•Cell with the same letter uses the same set of channels
group or frequencies sub-band.
•To find the total number of channel allocated to a cell:
•S = Total number of duplex channels available to use
•k = Channels allocated to each cell (k<S)
•N = Total number of cells or Cluster Size
•Then Total number of channels (S) will be,
S = kN
Frequency Reuse Factor = 1/N
Frequency Reuse Distance
Frequency Reuse Distance
 Frequency Reuse Concept

In the above diagram cluster size is 7 (A,B,C,D,E,F,G) thus

frequency reuse factor is 1/7.
N is the number of cells which collectively use the complete set of
available frequencies is called a Cluster.
The value of N is calculated by the following formula:
N = I2 + I*J + J2 Where I,J = 0,1,2,3…
Hence, possible values of N are 1,3,4,7,9,12,13,16,19…
If a Cluster is replicated or repeated M times within the cellular
system, then Capacity, C, will be,
C = MkN = MS
 Frequency Reuse Concept

In Frequency reuse there are several cells that use the same set of
frequencies.
These cells are called Co-Channel Cells.
These Co-Channel cells results in interference.
So to avoid the Interference cells that use the same set of channels
or frequencies are separated from one another by a larger
distance.
The distance between any two Co-Channels can be calculated by
the following formula:
D = R * (3 * N)1/2
Where, R = Radius of a cell N = Number of cells in a given cluster
 FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE
Reusing an identical frequency channel in different cells is
limited by cochannel interference between cells and the
cochannel interference can become a major problem in
cellular communication.
So it is desirable to find the minimum frequency reuse
distance D in order to reduce this cochannel interference.
The minimum distance, which allows the same frequency to
be reused in cochannel cells, will depend on many factors
such as
• the number of cochannel cells in the vicinity of the
center cell,
• the type of geographic terrain contour,
• the antenna height, and
• the transmitted power at each cell-site.
 FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE
Assume that the size of all the cells is approximately
same;
the cell size is usually determined by the coverage area of
the signal strength in each cell.
As long as the cell size is fixed, cochannel interference is
independent of transmitted power of each cell.
It means that the received signal threshold level at the
mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell.
Actually, cochannel interference is a function of a
parameter known as frequency reuse ratio, q, and is
defined as
q = D/R
where
D is the distance between two nearest cochannel cells, and
R is the radius of the cells under consideration
 FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE
Assume that the size of all the cells is approximately
same;
the cell size is usually determined by the coverage area of
the signal strength in each cell.
As long as the cell size is fixed, cochannel interference is
independent of transmitted power of each cell.
It means that the received signal threshold level at the
mobile unit is adjusted to the size of the cell.
Actually, cochannel interference is a function of a
parameter known as frequency reuse ratio, q, and is
defined as
q = D/R
where
D is the distance between two nearest cochannel cells, and
R is the radius of the cells under consideration
 FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE
q = D/R
where
D is the distance between two nearest cochannel cells, and
R is the radius of the cells under consideration

The parameter q is also referred to as the cochannel reuse

ratio or the cochannel reuse factor or cochannel interference
reduction factor or frequency reuse ratio.
Determine the distance from the nearest cochannel cell for a
cell having a radius of 0.64 km and a cochannel reuse factor
of 12.
Solution
The radius of a cell, R = 0.64 km (given)
The cochannel reuse factor, q = 12 (given)
To determine the distance from the nearest cochannel cell, D
We know that
q = D/R, Or, D = q × R
Therefore, D = 12 × 0.64 km = 7.68 km
Hence, the distance from the nearest cochannel cell
D = 7.68 km
Determine the frequency reuse ratio for a cell radius of 0.8
km separated from the nearest cochannel cell by a distance
of 6.4 km.
Solution
The radius of a cell, R = 0.8 km (given)
The distance between nearest cochannel cells, D = 6.4 km
(given)
To determine the frequency reuse ratio, q
We know that q = D/R Or, q = 6.4/0.8 = 8
Hence, the frequency reuse ratio for given parameters
q=8
 FREQUENCY REUSE DISTANCE
q = D/R
where
D is the distance between two nearest cochannel cells, and
R is the radius of the cells under consideration

The frequency reuse ratio q is related to the cluster size (or

frequency reuse factor) K by
q = D/R =
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
The frequency reuse method is useful for increasing the
efficiency of spectrum usage but results in cochannel
interference because the same frequency channel is used
repeatedly in different cochannel cells in a service area.
In this situation, the received signal quality is affected by the
amount of radio coverage area as well as the cochannel
interference.
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
The cochannel interference is caused due to the reuse of the
same carrier frequency at different geographical locations.
Because cochannel interfering signals are amplified,
processed and detected in the same manner as the desired
signal, the receiver is particularly vulnerable to these
emissions.
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
The cochannel interference can then be measured by
selecting any one channel (as one channel represents all the
channels) and transmitting on that channel at all cochannel
sites.
In a fully equipped hexagonal-shaped cellular system, there
are always six cochannel interfering cells in the first tier.
Figure depicts a typical field measurement test set-up 1 to
measure cochannel interference at the mobile unit, in which
the mobile unit is moving in its serving cell
Co-channel interference (CCI)
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
Let the symbol
C= the power of the desired signal
I= the power of the cochannel interference, and
N= the power of the noise at the output of the
receiver demodulator
Cochannel interference can be experienced both at the cell-
site and at mobile units in the serving cell.
If the interference is much greater then the carrier to
interference ratio C/I at the mobile units caused by the six
interfering cell-sites is (on the average) the same as the C/I
received at the serving cell site caused by interfering mobile
units in the six cells.
According to the reciprocity theorem and the statistical
summation of radio propagation, the two C/I values can be
very close.
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
A channel-scanning mobile receiver records three received
signals while moving in any one cochannel cell, under the
following conditions:
• When only the serving cell transmits
(signal recorded is termed as C)
• Cell-sites of all six cochannel cells only transmit
(signal recorded is termed as I)
• No transmission by any cell-site
(signal recorded is termed as N )
 Co-channel interference (CCI)
Let a value of C/I = 18 dB or greater be acceptable in a cellular
system.
In general, the performance of such types of interference-limited
cellular system can be evaluated from the following results.
(a) If the carrier-to-interference ratio C/I is greater than 18 dB in
most of the area being served by a cell, the system is said to be
properly designed.
(b) If C/I is less than 18 dB and carrier-to-noise ratio C/N is greater
than 18 dB in some areas, the system is said to have a cochannel
interference problem.
(c) If both C/I and C/N are less than 18 dB and C/I is approximately
same as C/N in a given area, the system is said to have a radio
coverage problem.
(d) If both C/I and C/N are less than 18 dB and C/I is less than C/N in
a given area, the system is said to have both cochannel
interference as well as radio coverage problem.
Cluster Size and System Capacity
Thank You