Basic CT training : X-ray

TSG

CT

Basics of X-ray

33 sheets
xray *C

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Electromagnetic radiation

Gamma X-rays Visible

rays rays light Radio

Ultra Infra
violet red

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Inside the atom

The NUCLEUS is made up
of PROTONS and NEUTRONS

PROTONS
have a positive charge.

NEUTRONS
have no electrical charge.

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Inside the atom

ELECTRONS
have a negative charge.

The number of electrons in

an atom usually matches
the number of protons,
making the atom electrical
neutral.

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Ionizing radiation : ALPHA

 A nucleus can eject two protons and two neutrons,

reducing its mass and transforming itself into a different
element.
The ejected foursome is called an ALPHA particle.
 Slow-moving alpha particles carry a positive charge.
They cannot penetrate a piece of paper or skin but are
very dangerous when substances emitting them are
ingested or inhaled.

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Ionizing radiation : BETA (1/2)

 A neutron can become a proton, emitting an electron

called a BETA particle.
 Moving at nearly light speed, beta particles can
penetrate paper of several millimeters of skin. They can
be harmful when emitted inside the body.
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Ionizing radiation : BETA (2/2)

GAMMA ray

 A proton can also turn into a neutron, emitting a positron (a

positively charged particle) that can combine with an electron
to produce a gamma ray.
 Moving at nearly light speed, beta particles can penetrate
paper of several millimeters of skin. They can be harmful
when emitted inside the body.
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Ionizing radiation : GAMMA

GAMMA ray

 An unstable nucleus can sometimes remain agitated, even

after emitting alpha of beta particles. Then it may rid itself of
excess energy by emitting a GAMMA ray (a short, intense
burst of electromagnetic energy).
 With high energy and no electrical charge, GAMMA rays
have great penetrating power. They pass easily through a
thick piece of lead or concrete. When they pass the human
body they damage tissue doing so.
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Ionizing radiation : X-RAYS

X-Ray

 X-RAYS are not usually emitted by decaying nuclei but are a

form of cosmic radiation. They can also be produced by firing
electrons at a heavy metal target. When the electrons hit the
metal, they release their energy as X-RAYS (photons).
 X-RAYS are somewhat less penetrating than gamma rays,
though their effects are similar.
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Principles of X-ray tube (1/5)

Target
Filament
(tungsten)
Glass
envelope

Filament Anode
connection connection
+ kV

Focussing Focal Anode

cup Area

Window

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Principles of X-ray tube (2/5)

Filament

Filament Anode
connection connection
+ kV

The filament. Is usually a spiral of tungsten wire

heated by a low voltage supply. Electrons are
released by thermo-ionic emission.
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Principles of X-ray tube (3/5)

High Voltage
supply
Target

Filament Anode
connection connection
+ kV

High Voltage supply. Is connected between the

filament and the target. The target is a part of the
anode and usually made of tungsten.
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Principles of X-ray tube (4/5)

High Voltage
supply

Filament
- Anode
connection + connection
+ kV

Kinetic energy. Is gained by the (negatively

charged) electrons as they are accelerated to
high speed by the positive voltage on the target.
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Principles of X-ray tube (5/5)

High Voltage
supply

Filament
- Anode
connection + connection
+ kV

The kinetic energy is given up by the electrons in

interactions with the target. In the tube exists a
high vacuum, so that there is no gas present.
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Interactions with the target (1/4)

K
L
M
N
The incident electron transfers a small amount of energy to
an electron in a outer shell. This electron moves to a higher
shell (excitation). When it returns to the original shell the
energy is released and appears as heat in the target.
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Interactions with the target (2/4)

K
L
M
N

The incident electron transfers enough energy to remove an electron from

the outer shell (ionization).This secondary electron can cause more
ionization or excitation.
Eventually the energy is given up and appears as heat in the target.
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Interactions with the target (3/4a)

Characteristic
X-ray photon

K
L

The incident electron transfers enough energy to remove an

electron from a inner shell. When the vacancy is filled by
an electron from another shell a X-ray photon is emitted.
This is known as a characteristic X-ray photon.
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Interactions with the target (3/4b)

Characteristic
X-ray photon

transition

The incident electron transfers enough energy to remove an

electron from a inner shell. When the vacancy is filled by
an electron from another shell a X-ray photon is emitted.
This is known as a characteristic X-ray photon.
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Interactions with the target (4/4)

Bremsstrahlung

K
L
M
N

• The incident electron passes close to the nucleus. The

electron decelerates and loses energy by emitting an X-ray
photon.
This X-radiation is known as Bremsstrahlung.
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X-ray spectrum (1/5)

Continuous spectrum.
 The intensity of the x-rays is distributed in a
continuous fashion over the range of
wavelengths present.

 Also known as ‘General’

General or ‘White radiation’.
radiation

 Is a result of Bremsstrahlung.
Bremsstrahlung

 Short wavelength = High photon energy.

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X-ray spectrum (2/5)

Line -or- Characteristic spectrum (1/2)
 Is superimposed on the Continuous spectrum.

 A group of characteristic lines appear arising

from the various transitions that can take place.

 In the plot the K-series are shown :

K = L-shell electron fills K-shell vacancy.
K = M-shell electron fills K-shell vacancy.

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X-ray spectrum (3/5)

Line -or- Characteristic spectrum (2/2)
 Also L , L , M and M series photons are
emitted.

 Usually only K-series photons have enough

energy to emerge from x-ray tubes.

 The L-series photons have less energy and are

almost completely absorbed before emerging
from the tube window.
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K K X-ray spectrum (4/5)

I II
Intensity

Intensity
B B

A A

Wavelength Photon energy

A Continuous spectrum only.

B Continuous spectrum with the characteristic line
spectrum superimposed (K-series are shown).
I Intensity plotted against Wavelength.
II Intensity plotted against Photon Energy.
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X-ray spectrum (5/5)

I II

short
Intensity

Intensity
B B wavelength

A A

Wavelength Photon energy

 A peak in the intensity occurs at a wavelength 2 or 3

times the minimum wavelength.

 Short wavelength corresponds to high photon

energy.

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The quality and intensity of X-rays

• The quality of an X-ray beam is a

measure for how penetrating it is
(photon energy).

• The intensity (or exposure rate) is the

quantity of radiation flowing per time
unit.
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Influencing factors : High Voltage (1/2)

C

C
B
Intensity

High Voltage
B

A A

Photon energy

The high voltage affects both the quality and the intensity.

 As the applied voltage is increased the photon energy and

the intensity increases.

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Influencing factors : High Voltage (2/2)

A = Pulsating Voltage
B
B = Constant Voltage
Intensity

Photon energy

The type of rectification used influences the quality.

 A constant voltage (B) will produce a better quality

compared to pulsating voltage (A).
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Influencing factors : Tube current

Intensity

CurrentB = 2x CurrentA
B

Photon energy

 This is the flow of electrons from the filament to the target.

 A change will only influence the intensity, not the quality.

 The intensity will increase in proportion to the current.

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Influencing factors : Filters

A = Before filtration
Intensity

A
B
B = After filtration

Photon energy
 Filters alter the quality, but the intensity is reduced.

 A filter is of a thin sheet of material in which the attenuation increases

rapidly with decrease of photon energy.

 The filtered beam is called ‘harder’

harder (i.e. more penetrating)
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Influencing factors : Target material

A
MaterialA has a
B
Intensity

A
higher atomic number
B

than MaterialB

Photon energy

 The atomic number of the material affects the intensity of the

photon energy.

 The higher the atomic number of the target material the more
efficient the X-ray production is.
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Summary (1/2)
X-ray beam quality depends on :

 Peak value of applied voltage.

 Type of rectification.

 Filtration.

 Presence of characteristic radiation.

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Summary (2/2)
X-ray beam intensity depends on :

 The applied voltage.

 Tube current.

 Target material.

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Biological effects of radiation

If radiation is passing through biological material,
the ionization and excitation may occur in
biologically important molecules.

This could damage or kill cells.

So,
 Protect yourself !
 Use lead-shields and jackets if you need to enter the
room during generation of X-rays.
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