CHAPTER FIVE:

WATER CONVEYANCE AND CONTROL

5.1 IRRIGATION DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

 The aim of irrigation facilities is to divert water from a source, convey it

to appropriate locations in the system and distribute it within the field.

Irrigation
Network

Water conveyanc measurem distributio

protection regulation division
acquisition e ent n
 Cont.

 At the head of the irrigation network there will be some kind of headwork
for diversion of water ( diversion weir, dam, pumping station etc.)
 Three management levels in irrigation networks
1. Main level: Consists of the facilities for water acquisition and
conveyance being managed by irrigation agencies.
2. Off-farm level: Consists of facilities for water distribution at off-
takes being managed by a group of farmers or water users:
3. Field level: Consists of the facilities for application of water to the
individual plots and is managed by the individual farmer or irrigator.
 Cont.

h
Irrigati
Field on
units Areas
Quater
Tertiary nary
unit unit
Second
Irrigati ary unit
on area
(Comm
and
area)
 Cont.

● Diversion/Headwork
. structure
● ●

Tertiary
off-
takes
Seconda ● ● ● ●
ry off-
take
Structur Secondary
e unit

● ● ●

Tertiary unit

Fields/Farm
plots
 Cont.

 For a gravity irrigation system, the infrastructure consists of

 Open canals and
 Control structures
 The flow control structures in gravity irrigation systems include the following:
 Head works: Diversion weir, barrage, pumping station, free intake (dam)
 Conveyance structures: Drops, aqueduct, chute, flume, inverted siphon
 Regulating structures: Discharge regulator, water level regulator, division work, check
 Measuring structure: Broad, sharp, short-crested weirs, V-notch weir, Parshall and RBC
flumes
 Protective structures: Over chute, spillway, waste way, side drainage, stilling basin
 Off-take structures: Tertiary off-take, secondary of-take, turnout
 Miscellaneous structures: Culvert, sand traps, roads, drainage structures, trash racks
 Cont.

Typical tertiary off-

take structure
 Cont.

Methods of water (flow) measurement

 There are two major water measurements.
 These are direct method and indirect method of flow measurements.
 In the direct method is the measurement of flow using flow measuring equipment
from the Natural River or artificial canal.
 The indirect method is measured the flow by measuring the stage of the river and
convert it in to the flow by using the recorded velocity or rating curve.
 FLOW MEASUREMENT IN CANALS

 Amongst the methods and devices used for measuring water in an

irrigation canal network, the weir is the most practical and
economical device for water measurement, provided there is
sufficient head available.
 Measuring flumes are also used in irrigation networks and their
advantage are smaller head losses, reasonable accuracy over a large
flow range, insensitivity to velocity of approach, and not affected
much by sediment load.
Weirs
 Weirs have been in use as discharge measuring devices in open
channels since almost two centuries and are probably the most
extensively used devices for measurement of the rate of flow of
water in open channels.
 Cont.

 Weirs may be divided in to sharp and broad crested types.

General overview of sharp

crested rectangular weir

Where
Q is the discharge in m3/s;
L is the length of the crest
in meters; and
H is the head in meters
 Cont.

 The discharge formula for this type of weir was given by Cipoletti as:

Q = 1.86 L H3/2

Where
Q is the discharge in m3/s;
L is the length of the crest
in meters; and
H is the head in meters
 SHARP SIDED 900 V-NOTCH WEIR

 Of the several well-known formulae used to compute the discharge

over 900 V-notch weirs the formula recommended generally is the
following:
Q = 8/15 (2gCd)1/2 H 5/2
Where
Q is the discharge in m3 /s;
g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s2);
Cd is a coefficient of discharge; and,
H is the head in meters.
 The value of Cd varies according to the variation of H.
 PARSHAL FLUMES

 Measurement flumes are open channel devices with a specially

shaped partially constricted throat section.
 IRRIGATION CANAL DESIGN

 A canal is said to be design when its longitudinal and cross section are
worked out to suit the requirements.
 Thus, various channel dimensions, bed width, depth, side slopes,
longitudinal slopes, etc. are to be fixed in design of irrigation channels.
 Irrigation channels are designed to take maximum required discharge
safely which is called full supply discharge.
 Definitions
 Hydraulic mean radius (R): it is also called hydraulic mean depth. It is
the ratio of wetted cross-sectional area and wetted perimeter.
Where A = cross-sectional area of flow
A
R Pw = wetted perimeter of a channel
Pw
 Cont.

 Full supply Discharge (F.S.D): It is the maximum discharge for

which the canal is designed.
 The level of water in the canal at F.S.D is called the full supply level
(F.S.L).
 The hydraulic formulae commonly used are the following:

Where
Q = design discharge, m3/sec
A = cross sectional area of the canal, m
V = mean velocity of flow, m/sec
 Cont.

Chezy’s formula

Where
R = hydraulic mean depth, m
S = bed slope of the canal
C = Chezy’s constant
 The value of Chezy’s “C” can be calculated from following formulae:
a. Bazin’s formulea
 Cont.

b. Manning’s formula

Putting this value of C in Chezy’s formula

c) Ganguillet and Kutter’s formula

 Irrigation Control Structures

 Irrigation control structures are structures which are constructed in

order to control and regulate discharges, depths, velocities, etc. in
canals.
 Functions of canal regulating structures include:
 To dissipate excess energy
 To measure discharge for proper distribution
 For safety purpose, E.g cutoff supplies to offtake channel, remove silt
and excess water
 To raise or lower the water surface in the channel
 To cross obstacles such as drainage lines and depressions
 Cont.

 Important Canal regulation structures:

 Canal Falls (Drop Structures)
 Canal regulators (Head regulator and cross regulator) or Checks
(permanent or temporary)
 Cross-Drainage works
 Canal escapes
 Metering flumes, canal outlets, etc.
1. Drop Structures/Canal Falls
 Canal Falls (Drop Structures) are canal control structures constructed at suitable
intervals in a canal whenever the available natural ground slope is steeper than the
designed bed slope of the canal.
 Cont.

 Functions of drop structures:

 To reduce the velocity of flow and thus dissipate surplus energy
 May also be equipped with a calibrated weir section which can be used to measure
the quantity of water flowing over them
 2.Head and Cross Regulators

 Head regulator is constructed at the head of the off taking channel

(or distributary) to control and regulate supplies entering the off
taking channel.
 Functions of head regulator are
 To regulate or control supplies into off taking channel from the parent
channel.
 To cut off supplies when not needed in the off taking channel or when
the off taking channel is required to be closed for repairs
 To control silt entry in to the off taking channel
 It serves as meter for measurement of discharge entering the off taking
channel
 Cont.

 A cross regulator is generally constructed across a parent channel for

raising (to head) up the water level in the parent channel when its
discharge is less than the full supply discharge.
 There, functions of a cross regulator are:
 To effect equitable distribution of supplies amongst the distributing channels
 To raise water level when supply in the parent channel is low to feed off takes
 To provide means for cutting off supplies for repairs, etc.
 To provide means of communication across the channels through the
bridges/platform provided over them.
 They help to absorb fluctuations in the various sections of the canal system, and thus
to prevent possibilities of breaches in the tail reaches.
 To help escape excess water from the canal in conjunction with escapes
 To control water surface slope in conjunction with falls for bringing the canals to
regime slope and section.
Cont.
 3.Canal Outlets/Turnout structures

 Canal outlets are small structures built on the bank of a distributary

channel through which water is supplied to a water course (or a field
channel).
4. Metering (Parshall flume) flume
 Is an artificially flumed (narrowed) section of the channel, which can
be utilized for measuring the discharge in the channel.
5. Sediment Control devices
 Are structures constructed in the canal to minimize problem of
sedimentations. Sediment extractors (ejectors) are constructed in the
main canals.
 6. Checks

 To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to
raise the water level in the ditch.
 Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily
and to raise the upstream water level.
 Checks can be permanent structures or portable.
 Cont.

 Check spacing may also be influenced by the following considerations:

 Canal storage: Locating checks closer together increases the amount of storage
in the canal.
 Travel time between checks: Spacing may be influenced by the time required for
operating personnel between structures.
 Canal properties: Checks are usually located where changes in canal cross
section or capacity occur.
Related Hydraulic Structures (Cross drainage works)
 The alignment of a canal invariably meets a number of natural streams
(drains) and other structures such as roads and railways, and may
sometimes have to cross valleys.
 Cross-drainage works are the structures which make such crossings possible.
 A cross drainage work is generally a costly construction and must be avoided
as far as possible.
 Cont.

 Types of Drainage Works:

 The drainage water intercepting the canal can be disposed off in either of the
following ways.
1.By passing the canal over the drainage: This may be accomplished either through
i. Aqueduct
ii. Syphon-aqueduct
2. By passing the canal below the drainage: This may be accomplished either by
i. Supper passage
ii. Canal syphon generally called a syphon
3. By passing drain through the canal so that the canal water and drainage water
allowed to intermingle with each other.
i. A level crossing
ii. Inlets and outlets.
Cont.
 ! ! !
E n d
T h e
 Chapter 6:
Surface Drainage and Sub-Surface Drainage
Introduction
 All irrigation water is not pure and may contain some soluble salts.
 Irrigation water is usually drawn from surface or ground water sources
 Typically contain salts in the range of 200 to 2000 ppm (200 to 2000 g/m3)
 Irrigation water contains 10 – 100 times more salt than rain water.
 Salt-affected soils develop from a wide range of factors including:
 Soil type,
 Field slope and drainage,
 Irrigation system type and management,
 Fertilizer and manuring practices, and
 Other soil and water management practices.
 Cont.

 Besides affecting crop yield and soil physical conditions, irrigation water quality can affect
fertility needs, irrigation system performance and longevity, and how the water can be applied.
 Therefore, knowledge of irrigation water quality is critical to understanding what management
changes are necessary for long-term productivity.
Effects of poor irrigation water quality
 With poor quality of water, various soil & cropping problems can be expected to develop.
 Most common poor quality of irrigation water, various soil & cropping problems are
 Salinity:-If excessive quantities of salts accumulate in the root zone & crops can’t extract it
 Toxicity :occurs when certain constituents in the water are taken up by the crop and
accumulate in, which result in reduced yield.
 Permeability :occurs when the rate of infiltration is reduced by the effect of specific salts
and yield is reduced.
 Miscellaneous : Various other problems related irrigation water quality occurs with
sufficient frequency be specifically noted.
 Irrigation Water Quality Criteria

 Soil scientists use the following categories to describe irrigation

water effects on crop production and soil quality:
 Salinity hazard : determined by EC (Electric Conductivity)
 Sodium hazard : determined by SAR (Sodium Absorption Ratio)
 PH: acid or basic
 Alkalinity: carbonate and bicarbonate
 Specific ions: chloride, sulfates, boron, and nitrate
 Classification of Irrigation Waters
 The classification proposed by the United States Soil Salinity Laboratory (USSSL) is
widely used because it includes both the factors of salinity & sodium hazard.
1. Based on salt content
 Waters have been divided into four classes depending on their soluble salt content as
expressed by the E.C value (Low, Medium, high and Very high salinity water).
2. Based on Sodium Hazard
 Waters have also been divided into four classes depending on their sodium hazard
 Low (S1), Medium(S2), High(S3) and Very high Sodium Water (S4)
3. Based on Suitability of Irrigation Water
 On the basis of suitability of water for irrigation, it may be classified in three categories.
 Class – I: (Excellent to good and is suitable for most crops )
 Class – II: Water is considered good to injurious and are suitable only with permeable
soils and with moderate leaching.
 Class – III: water is considered injurious to unsatisfactory and are unsuitable for most
crops except a few most tolerant varieties.
 Cont.

.
Management
practices for
using poor
quality water

Use of Choice of
Irrigation Application
Drainage Fertilizers & Tolerant
Management of gypsum
Manures Crops
 Food
Structur
e Economy

Irrigatio
Development n Climate
Eng’g

The End!!! Agro-Industry

Flood
control
T ha nk y ou ! ! ! Management