PC HARDWARE COMPONENTS

Motherboard
Drives
Expansion cards
Power supply
Enclosures (case or chassis)
Peripherals
Mbeya University of Science and
Technology, Compiled by Enlai W.N 11/14/24
Mobile: +255 752626662
Components of the System Unit (Computer).
 Motherboard
CPU, RAM, Cache, ROM chips with
BIOS, Chip sets, ports, buses and
expansion slots .
 Drives
 Hard disk drive
 Floppy disk drive
 CD-ROM drive
 Expansion cards
Graphics card (video adapter)
 Network controller
11/14/24
  SCSI controller
 Sound card
 Internal Modem
 Power supply
 Enclosures (case or chassis)
 Peripherals
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joystick
 Monitor
 Scanner
 Speakers
Mbeya
External drives , External modem.
University of Science and
Technology, Compiled by 11/14/24
11/14/24
1. Mother board
Motherboard is the central circuit board that
connects all expansion cards, drives and
peripherals together. If the processor is the brain of
the computer, then the motherboard is the central
nervous system and circulatory system. The
motherboard houses the processor and the memory
of the computer, and contains the buses, the
channels which pass data through the computer.
All connections to and from the computer will
pass either directly into the motherboard or
through an expansion card such as a video-card
11/14/24
plugged into
the board. The motherboard provides the
infrastructure of the computer. There are many,
many available brands and models of motherboard,
since each one is designed for a specific range of
processors and memory. The chips and circuits that
define a motherboard's capabilities are known as
the chipset. Generally, Good understanding of
motherboard is the most critical part of getting a
good understanding of how PCs work in general.
Motherboard is the base of the modern computer
system.

11/14/24
The importance of motherboard
Organization: The way that the motherboard is
designed and laid out dictates how the entire
computer is going to be organized
Control: The motherboard contains the chipset and
BIOS program, which between them control most
of the data flow within the computer
Communication: Almost all communication
between the PC and its peripherals, other PCs, and
you, the user, goes through the motherboard.
Processor Support: The motherboard dictates
directly your choice of processor for use in the
system. 11/14/24
Peripheral Support: The motherboard determines,
in large part, what types of peripherals you can use
in your PC. For example, the type of video card
your system will use (ISA, VLB, PCI) is dependent
on what system buses your motherboard uses.
Performance: The motherboard is a major
determining factor in your system's performance,
for two main reasons. First and foremost, the
motherboard determines what types of processors,
memory, system buses, and hard disk interface
speed your system can have, and these components
dictate directly your system's performance.
11/14/24
Second, the quality of the motherboard circuitry
and chipset themselves have an impact on
performance.
Upgradeability: The capabilities of your
motherboard dictate to what extent you
will be able to upgrade your machine.
For example, there are some
motherboards that will accept regular
Pentiums of up to 133 MHz speed only,
while others will go to 200 MHz.
Obviously, the second one will give you
more room to upgrade if you are starting
with a P133. 11/14/24
11/14/24
Types of Motherboard (Form Factors)
The form factor determines the general layout, size,
and feature placement on a motherboard. Different
form factors usually require different style cases, it
also specifies what type of case and power supply
will be supported,. Differences between form
factors can include, physical size and shape,
mounting hole location, feature placement, power
supply connectors, and others. The most two kinds
of form factors are AT and ATX AT Motherboard
AT stands for "Advanced Technology. AT
motherboards were introduced in 1984 with size
12x13 inches 11/14/24
AT type: -An old type of motherboard that has
only an integrated keyboard port, and two small
separated power connectors [p8 & P9].
It is advanced technology
It is very huge(in size)
More expansion slots
The only integrated port on this (AT) motherboard
is for the keyboard, all other devices connect to the
motherboard via cards and expansion slots
The Baby AT motherboard measures 8.5x13
inches and is laid out exactly same as AT
AT power supply connect to AT or Baby AT with
one P8 connector and one P9 connector 11/14/24
ATX Motherboard ATX stands for "Advanced
Technology Extended". Intel created ATX
motherboard in 1996, with size 12x9.6 inches. The
ATX form factor's positioning was redesigned to
offer better access to the peripheral components on
the inside of the computer.
It has many integrated ports, including two serial
ports, a parallel port, USB ports and mini DIN ports
ATX type: -The modem type of motherboard while,
has a small keyboard port and one big power
connector [P1].
 It is modern
 Less expansion slot 11/14/24
  Very compact
PS/2 connectors provide one of the quickest visual
ways to distinguish between ATX and AT
motherboards
ATX power supply connect to the motherboard
via a single P1 connector
ATX motherboards introduced support for power
management controlled by the BIOS

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11/14/24
11/14/24
The first "integrated component" is the
motherboard board itself! Motherboards are
multiple layer printed circuit boards, also
sometimes called PCBs. The physical board that
you see is actually a sandwich of several thinner
layers, each containing some of the circuitry
required to connect the various components on the
board. At one time this was expensive, difficult-to-
manufacture technology, but time and automation
has reduced this complexity to the point where the
board itself is a minor component of overall cost.
Still, good motherboards are solid and well
designed, while cheaper ones tend to be flimsy,
11/14/24
increase the chance of a (virtually impossible to
diagnose) electrical problem on the board. In
addition, better boards reduce interference
problems because of their design, and reduce the
chances of problems in assembling the PC. Thin
boards are more subject to damage from flexing
when inserting peripherals; the thicker the board,
the better.

Sockets or Slots
Of course, the motherboard has one or more
sockets or slots to hold the processor(s). Single-
processor motherboards are by far the 11/14/24
most
processor and even quad processor boards are not
hard to find. (Quad boards often use special,
proprietary designs employing riser cards.) The type
of socket or slot used dictates the type of processor
(and in some cases the speed) that can be used by
the motherboard. Not surprisingly, the standards for
processor sockets and slots have been generally
defined by most modern motherboards that have a
socket use the ZIF (zero insertion force) style socket
that allows the processor to be inserted or removed
from the motherboard by using a lever that tightens
or loosens the processor's pins in the socket.
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This is a vast improvement over the older style
sockets, which required you to exert considerable
force on the surface of a delicate (and expensive)
processor, just to get it into the motherboard.
(Getting it out was of course even harder!)

Memory Sockets Most motherboards today come

with between 2 and 8 sockets for the insertion of
memory. These are usually SIMMs (single inline
memory modules) or DIMMs (dual inline memory
modules) or the recent RIMMs (Ramous inline
memory modules) these can come in different sizes.
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I/O Bus Slots
All motherboards have one or more system I/O
buses that are used to expand the computer's
capabilities. The slots in the back of the machine
are where expansion cards are placed (like your
video card, sound card, network card, etc.). These
slots allow you to expand the capabilities of your
machine in many different ways, and the increase
of both general purpose and very specific
expansion cards is part of the success story of the
PC platform.

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Most modern PCs have two different types of bus
slots. The first is the standard ISA (Industry
Standard Architecture) slot; most PCs have 3 or 4
of these. These slots have two connected sections
and start about a half-inch from the back of the
motherboard, extending to around its middle. This
is the oldest (and slowest) bus type and is used for
cards that don't require a lot of speed: for example,
sound cards and modems. Older systems (generally
made well before 1990) may have ISA slots with
only a single connector piece on each; these are 8-
bit ISA slots and will (of course) only support 8-bit
ISA cards.. 11/14/24
Pentium systems and newer 486-class motherboards
also have PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)
bus slots, again, usually 3 or 4. They are
distinguished from ISA slots in two ways. First, they
are shorter, and second, they are offset from the
back edge of the motherboard by about an inch. PCI
is a high-speed bus used for devices like video cards,
hard disk controllers, and high-speed network cards.
Note: Newer PCI motherboards have the connectors
for the hard disks coming directly from the
motherboard. These connectors are part of the PCI
bus, even though the hard disks aren't connected to a
physical PCI slot. 11/14/24
The newest PCs add another, new connector to the
motherboard: an Accelerated Graphics Port slot.
AGP is not really a bus, but is a single-device port
used for high-performance graphics. The AGP slot
looks similar to a PCI slot, except that it is offset
further from the back edge of the motherboard.
Some motherboards incorporate a so-called
"shared" ISA and PCI slot. This name implies a
single slot that can take either type of card, but that
isn't possible because the two slot types are
physically incompatible. In order to save space
while maximizing the number of expansion slots,
some designers put an ISA slot on the board11/14/24
right
PCI slot; you then have the choice to use either the
ISA or the PCI slot, but not both. This design is
possible because ISA cards mount on the left-hand
side of a slot position, while PCI slots mount on the
right-hand side

Power Connector(s)
The motherboard has a socket to attach the power
cables coming from the power supply. ATX form
factor motherboards and power supplies use a
single, keyed 20-wire motherboard power cable.
All others use a pair of 6-wire cables. The cables
are connected to the motherboard so that the black
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wires (grounds) are together in the middle. This
connector is usually found near the back right-hand
side of the motherboard, near the power supply.

The main parts of the motherboard and its related

devices.
 System Chipset and Controllers: A chipset
defines the processor type, type and capacity of
RAM, and what internal and external devices the
motherboard will support Serves as an electronic
interface among the CPU, RAM, and
input/output devices The chipset and other
motherboard circuitry are the "smarts" of the
11/14/24
motherboard. Their job is to direct traffic and
control the flow of information inside the
computer. These circuits control the processor's
access to memory, the flow of data to and from
peripheral devices and communications lines,
and much more. The chipsets are the main
component of a motherboard. Chipsets have a
North-bridge and a South-bridge. They assist in
the basic functions of the different components
with which they communicate.

 The NorthBridge (also called the memory

controller) is in charge of controlling transfers
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between the processor and the RAM, which is
way it is located physically near the processor.
It is sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic
and Memory Controller Hub. It communicates
with the CPU, the PCI bus, and AGP, etc.
 The SouthBridge (also called the
input/output controller or expansion controller)
handles communications between peripheral
devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O
Controller Hub). It controls I/O functions like
the IDE channels, audio, serial, etc. The South
Bridge is the lower-speed component in the
chipset. 11/14/24
The chipset is a critical part of any computer,
because it plays a big role in determining what sorts
of features the computer can support. For example,
which processors you can use, which types of
memory, how fast you can run the machine, and
what kind of system buses your PC can use, are all
tied in to the type of chipset the motherboard uses.
 System Buses: The system buses are the
electrical channels through which various parts
of the computer communicate. The physical part
of these buses, the part you see, is the set of slots
in the back of the machine into which you put
your video card, sound card and other cards. 11/14/24
It is over the system buses that your video card
gets information from the processor; the
processor saves data to your hard disk, etc. The
architecture chosen for each of the system buses
has a great impact on the performance of your
PC, as well as dictating your choices for video
cards and other devices.
 BIOS: The system BIOS (which stands for
Basic Input/output System) is a computer
program that is built into the PC's hardware. It is
the lowest-level program that runs on your
computer. Its job is to act as an intermediary
between your system hardware (the chipset,11/14/24
motherboard, processor and peripherals) and
your system software (the operating system).
The BIOS is what runs when you turn on your
computer, and what loads your operating system
(for example, DOS and Windows). The BIOS
also allows you to set or change many different
parameters that control how your computer will
function. For example, you tell the BIOS what
sort of hard drives you have so it knows how to
access them.
 Cache: The system cache is a small, high-
speed memory area that is placed between the
processor and the system memory. 11/14/24
The value of the cache is that it is much faster
than normal system memory. Each time the
processor requests a piece of data from the
memory, the system first checks the cache to see
if the information is there. If it is, then the value
is read from cache instead of memory, and the
processor can get back to work that much sooner.
If it isn't, then the data is read from memory and
given to the processor, but it is also placed into
the cache in case the processor needs it again in
the near future.
 System Resources: System resources are not
actual physical devices; 11/14/24
they are nothing you can reach into the machine
and touch. But they are very important for two
reasons. First, they dictate how your PC
organizes its access to various memory areas
and devices. Second, they are one of the most
common areas where people have problems
with the setup of their PCs: so-called resource
conflicts. These are the four types of resources
that various parts of your computer can
sometimes decide to fight over:
 Interrupts (IRQs): Under traditional
designs, each device has a different IRQ
number. If two try to use the same one, 1a1/14/24
conflict can result. Newer technologies can
allow multiple devices to share an IRQ
channel.
 Direct Memory Access (DMA) Channels:
Some devices have the ability to read and
write directly from the system memory,
instead of asking the processor to do it for
them. Cutting the "middle man" out in this
manner improves the efficiency of the
system. Each device that does this needs its
own DMA channel.
 Input/Output (I/O) Addresses: Devices
exchange information with the system by
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putting data into certain specific memory
addresses. For example, when we pressed the
letter "M", the key press was stored in a
certain memory address until it was time for
the processor to deal with it. Any time
information goes into or out of the machine,
to your modem or hard drive or printer for
example, it uses these I/O addresses. Again,
each device needs its own memory area.
 Memory Addresses: Similar to I/O
addresses, many devices use blocks of
memory as part of their normal functioning.
For example, they may map hardware 11/14/24
programs (BIOS code) into memory, or use
a memory area to hold temporary data they are
using.

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2. POWER SUPPLY PORTS AND CONNECTORS
2.1 POWER SUPPLY

11/14/24
Power Supply
 CPUs, RAM, chipsets-everything on the
motherboard-need electrical power to run. Every
power supply provides specialized connections to
the motherboard to provide DC electricity in several
voltages to feed the needs of the many devices.
Different motherboard form factors require different
connectors.
 A standard power supply draws power from a
local, Alternating Current (AC) source (usually a
wall outlet) and converts it to either 3.3, 5 and 12
volts direct current (DC), for on-board electronics,
and hard drives . 11/14/24
 Most PC power supplies also provide the system's
cooling and processor fans that keep the machine
from overheating
 Many newer supplies have a universal input that
will accept either 110 VAC (volts alternating
current), 60 Hz (U.S. standard power), or 220 VAC,
50 Hz (European/Asian/African standard).
 When replacing a power supply, there are three
things to consider: physical size, wattage, and
connectors.
Power-Supply Sizes
 Power supplies are based on the types of case
they will be used in and the types of motherboard
11/14/24
 connections they will support
 The older models are known as AT-style, and
the newer ones are known as ATX
 Older Pentium-based computers and all 486-
based and earlier PCs used AT supplies
 almost all Pentium II and later-based systems
use ATX supplies

Power-Supply Wattage
 Power supplies are rated according to the
maximum sustained power (given in watts) that
they can produce. A watt is a unit of electrical
power equivalent to one volt-ampere 11/14/24
  A PC requires sufficient wattage for the
machine to run properly
 Most general-use computers require 130 watts
while running
 About 200-205 watts when booting, It is safe
to buy 230-250 watt power supplies

Power-Supply Connectors
 Power supplies use several types of
connectors; all are easy to identify and use
 On the outside of the computer enclosure, a
standard male AC plug and three-conductor wire
(two power wires and a ground) draws current 11/14/24
 from a wall outlet, with a female connection
entering the receptacle in the back of the power
supply
AT Power Connectors
A pair of connectors-called P8 and P9 link the AT
power supply to the AT motherboard. Each of these
connectors has a row of teeth along one side and a
small guide on the opposite side that help hold the
connection in place.

11/14/24
You might find that installing P8 and P9 requires a
little bit of work, because of facing, keying, and
figuring out which one goes where. P8 and P9 are
faced (that is, they have a front and a back), so you
cannot install them backwards. Sometimes the
small keys on P8 and P9 require that you angle the
connectors in before snapping them down all the
way. Although you cannot plug P8 and P9 in
backwards, you certainly can reverse them by
putting P8 where P9 should go, and vice versa.
When connecting P8 and P9 to the motherboard,
keep the black ground wires next to each other. All
AT motherboards and power supplies follow 11/14/24
this
rule. Be careful incorrectly inserting P8 and P9 can
damage both the power supply and other
components in the PC.

ATX Power Connector

ATX uses a single P1 power connector instead of
the P8 and P9 commonly found on AT systems.
The P1 connector requires its own special socket on
the motherboard. P1 connectors include a 3.3-volt
wire along with the standard 5-volt and 12-volt
11/14/24
The invariably white P1 socket stands out clearly
on the motherboard. The P1 has a notched
connector that allows you to insert it one way only-
you cannot install the P1 connector incorrectly.

Connections to Peripherals
A power supply has two or three types of
connectors that plug into components such as hard
drives, floppy drives, CD-ROM drives, Zip drives,
and fans. Let's take a look at each of these power
11/14/24
connections. Both AT and ATX share these same
types of connectors.

Molex Connectors
The most common type of connection is called the
Molex. The Molex connector is used primarily for
devices that need both 12 volts and 5 volts of power
(Figure 3-15), such as hard drives and CD media
drives.
The Molex connector has chamfers (notches),
which make for easy installation. These chamfers
can be defeated if you push hard enough, so always
inspect the Molex connection to ensure proper11/14/24
orientation before you install. Installing a Molex
backward will almost certainly destroy the device
into which the Molex is connected.

Standard Molex connector Diagram of Molex connector and socket

Mini Connectors
Most systems also provide a mini connector. The
mini is used primarily on 3.5-inch floppy drives,
because floppy drive makers have adopted the mini
connector for that use. 11/14/24
It's very easy to install a mini connector
incorrectly, which inevitably results in a smoked
floppy drive. The mini connector installs with the
12 volt yellow wire on the left.

CAUTION
 The label on a power supply that says "Don't
Open" means just that!
 Opening a power supply is dangerous. It is
better to completely remove and replace a 11/14/24
 defective power supply as needed
 Do not connect power-carrying mini plugs to
audio or data devices such as a sound card,
because you might damage or destroy those
devices

Extenders and Splitters

 PCs can run out of power connections, and
large cases can have drives beyond the reach of
any plug on the supply. A quick solution on hand
to both of these common problems: extenders
and splitters
11/14/24
  Extenders are wire sets that have a Molex
connector on each end; they are used to extend a
power connection to a device beyond the reach of
the power supply's, own wiring
 Splitters are similar to extenders, with the
exception that they provide two power
connections from a single power supply
connector
Power-Supply Problems
 Power-supply problems can come from both
internal and external sources Failure of a power
supply can be caused by failure of components
11/14/24
within the computer (internal), but the most
common failures come from the power source
itself (external)
 Common power delivery problems are spikes,
surges, sags, brownouts, and blackouts affect the
stability and operation of the main power supply

11/14/24
11/14/24
Power-Protection Devices
Surge suppressors (Automatic Voltage Regulator)
 A device used to filter out the effects of voltage
spikes and surges that are present in commercial
power sources and smooth out power variations
 A good surge suppressor will protect your
system from most problems
 Most power strips with surge protection have a
red indicator light. If the light goes out, this means
that the unit is not providing protection
 Most power strip/surge protectors should be
replaced every year or so. If the light starts
flashing before then, the power strip is failing and
11/14/24
 should be replaced.
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS)
 For complete protection from power
fluctuations and outages, the uninterruptible
power supply (UPS) is recommended
 A UPS is an inline battery backup. When
properly installed between a computer and the
wall outlet, a UPS device protects the computer
from surges and acts as a battery when the power
dips or fails
 Many models can also interact with the
computer and initiate a safe shutdown in the
event of a complete power failure 11/14/24
  They do this by means of software that runs in
the background and is set in action by a signal
through one of the computer's COM ports when
the power goes down

2.2. Ports and Connectors

 Every cable used with PC has a connector at
the end that ultimately plugs into a corresponding
port on the PC
 Connectors and ports can be either male or
female, defined as having pins or holes,
respectively
11/14/24
Common Peripheral Ports
Serial Ports
 Serial ports transfer data 1 bit at a time and are
used to connect mouse, external modems, UPS
(for data), Switch
 It can be either 9-pin or 25-pin male port, but
the latest models has only 9-pin serial port
 Most motherboards have at least one or two
serial ports. COM1,COM2 with I/O address 3F8,
2F8 and IRQ4, IRQ3 respectively

11/14/24
Parallel Ports
 Parallel communications transfer data 8 bits(1
byte)
 Examples include parallel ports for printers;
game ports for joy sticks; keyboard buses for
keyboards
 Parallel ports are 25-pin female DB ports on
the back of PC
 Traditionally it gets I/O address 278 and IRQ7

11/14/24
Standard Connectors and Cabling Keyboard
 Keyboards range from simple, flat 104 key
typewriter type to curved types with 20 extra
keys for daily essentials( browsing, playing
music, etc)
 Keyboards connect to the PC with one of
three connectors
 A round five-pin DIN (Deutsch Industry
Norm) [for AT-style connector]
 A round six-pin mini-DIN, also called as PS/2
 A Universal Serial Bus (USB) connector

11/14/24
Mouse
Mouse connect to the computer with 9-pin DB or
with a mini-DIN (PS/2) connector or with USB port

11/14/24
Video
 Monitors connect the PC with DB video
connector
 Older CGA (Color/Graphics Adapter) and
EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) uses 9-pin
female DB connectors
 The new monitors VGA (Video Graphics
Adapter) SVGA (Super VGA) or XGA
(Extended Graphics Adapter) uses male DB
connectors with 15-pin in three rows

11/14/24
Audio
 All sound cards have integrated mini-audio
ports
 Devices such as microphone and speakers
connect to the audio to the audio ports using
mini-audio connector

MIDI/Joystick
 Many sound cards have a female DB-15 port
to connect Joystick and Musical Instrument
Digital Interface
 These devices connect to the port using a
male DB connector with 15-pins in two rows
11/14/24
Modems
 Modems connects the telephone line using
RJ-11 connectors use two wires
 All modems have at least one RJ-11 port and
many modems have two RJ-11 ports.

Network Cards
 Network Interface Cards (NIC) enables a PC
to be a part of network
 Most network cables have either RJ-45 11/14/24
or
 BNC Connector that connects to the NIC port RJ-
45 connectors are twisted pair cables that transfer
data using four or eight wires BNC connecter fits
into the hole in the BNC port

Printers
 Printers can use either a Centronics port, a
USB port, or both
 Centronics ports are female with two metal
clips to the lock the connector
 The 25-pin male connector at the other end of
the cable to the 25-pin female port on the back of
PC 11/14/24
  The square connector on the USB cable
connects to the printer, and the rectangular
connector on the USB cable to the port on the
PC

Enhanced Ports and Connectors

USB-Universal Serial Bus
 USB ports transfer data at speed up to 12
Mbps
 Windows from 98 handles it very well 11/14/24

 USB port and the square shaped type to connect
the device
 We can connect or disconnect at any time
without powering down the PC
 USB technology allows to daisy chain up to
127 devices together using only one IRQ
 Keyboard, mouse, joystick, microphones,
scanner, printers, modems and cameras connects
with USB

IEEE-1394 or FireWire
 It is an exciting technology created by Apple,
texas and IEEE It transfers at speeds up to 11/14/24
400
Mbps, such incredible speeds make this
technology perfect for digital video recorders,
external hard drives and other real time devises
 It can be hot swapped
 Enables to have daisy chain up to 63 Firewire
devices using single IRQ

11/14/24
3. Microprocessor
Microprocessor History
A microprocessor - also known as a CPU or
central processing unit - is a complete
computation engine that is fabricated on a single
chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004,
introduced in 1971. The 4004 was not very
powerful -- all it could do was add and subtract,
and it could only do that 4 bits at a time. But it
was amazing that everything was on one chip.
Prior to the 4004, engineers built computers
either from collections of chips or from discrete
components (transistors wired one at a time).
11/14/24
The 4004 powered one of the first portable
electronic calculators. The first microprocessor
to make it into a home computer was the Intel
8080, a complete 8-bit computer on one chip,
introduced in 1974. The first microprocessor to
make a real splash in the market was the Intel
8088, introduced in 1979 and incorporated into
the IBM PC (which first appeared around 1982).
If you are familiar with the PC market and its
history, you know that the PC market moved
from the 8088 to the 80286 to the 80386 to the
80486 to the Pentium to the Pentium II to the
Pentium III to the Pentium 4. All of11/14/24
these
made by Intel and all of them are improvements
on the basic design of the 8088. The Pentium 4
can execute any piece of code that ran on the
original 8088, but it does it about 5,000 times
faster! A chip is also called an integrated circuit.
Generally it is a small, thin piece of silicon onto
which the transistors making up the
microprocessor have been etched. A chip might
be as large as an inch on a side and can contain
tens of millions of transistors. Simpler
processors might consist of a few thousand
transistors etched onto a chip just a few
millimeters square. 11/14/24
The following table helps you to understand the
differences between the different processors that Intel has
introduced over the years.

11/14/24
Information about this table:
 The date is the year that the processor was
first introduced. Many processors are re-
introduced at higher clock speeds for many years
after the original release date.
 Transistors are the number of transistors on
the chip. You can see that the number of
transistors on a single chip has risen steadily
over the years.
 Microns are the width, in microns, of the
smallest wire on the chip. For comparison, a
human hair is 100 microns thick. As the feature
size on the chip goes down, the number of 11/14/24
transistors rises.
 Clock speed is the maximum rate that the chip
can be clocked at. Clock speed will make more
sense in the next section.
 Data Width is the width of the ALU. An 8-bit
ALU can add/subtract/multiply/etc. two 8-bit
numbers, while a 32-bit ALU can manipulate 32-
bit numbers. An 8-bit ALU would have to execute
four instructions to add two 32-bit numbers, while
a 32-bit ALU can do it in one instruction. In many
cases, the external data bus is the same width as
the ALU, but not always. The 8088 had a 16-bit
ALU and an 8-bit bus, while the modern Pentiums
11/14/24
 fetch data 64 bits at a time for their 32-bit ALUs.
 MIPS stand for "millions of instructions per
second" and is a rough measure of the
performance of a CPU.
Inside a Microprocessor
A microprocessor executes a collection of
machine instructions that tell the processor what
to do. Based on the instructions, a microprocessor
does three basic things:
 Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a
microprocessor can perform mathematical
operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. 11/14/24
Modern microprocessors contain complete
floating-point processors that can perform
extremely sophisticated operations on large
floating-point numbers.
 A microprocessor can move data from one
memory location to another.
 A microprocessor can make decisions and
jump to a new set of instructions based on those
decisions.

11/14/24
4. Memory
The memory holds instructions, data that needs to be
processed and the results. It is divided into two
types; Primary memory is the main memory on the
motherboard of the computer, and Secondary
memory is the storage media used to store the
program or data permanently. The primary
memory is of two types: ROM and RAM
Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM is a type of memory that normally can only be
read, as opposed to RAM which can be both read
and written. There are two main reasons that 11/14/24
read-only memory is used for certain functions
within the PC: The values stored in ROM are
always there, whether the power is on or not. A
ROM can be removed from the PC, stored for an
indefinite period of time, and then replaced, and the
data it contains will still be there. For this reason, it
is called non-volatile storage. A hard disk is also
non-volatile, for the same reason, but regular RAM
is not.

Read-only memory is most commonly used to store

system-level programs that we want to have
available to the PC at all times. 11/14/24
The most common example is the system BIOS
program, which is stored in a ROM called the
system BIOS ROM. Having this in a permanent
ROM means it is available when the power is
turned on so that the PC can use it to boot up the
system.

The following are the different types of ROMs with

a description of their relative modifiability:
 ROM: A regular ROM is constructed from
hard-wired logic, encoded in the silicon itself,
much the way that a processor is. It is designed
to perform a specific function and cannot be11/14/24
changed. This is inflexible and so regular ROMs
are only used generally for programs that are
static (not changing often) and mass-produced.
This product is analogous to a commercial
software CD-ROM that you purchase in a store.
 Programmable ROM (PROM): This is a type
of ROM that can be programmed using special
equipment; it can be written to, but only once.
This is useful for companies that make their own
ROMs from software they write, because when
they change their code they can create new
PROMs without requiring expensive equipment.
This is similar to the way a CD-ROM recorder
11/14/24
works by letting you "burn" programs onto blanks
once and then letting you read from them many
times. In fact, programming a PROM is also
called burning, just like burning a CD-R, and it is
similar in terms of its flexibility.
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM):
An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and
reprogrammed. A little glass window is installed
in the top of the ROM package, through which
you can actually see the chip that holds the
memory. Ultraviolet light of a specific frequency
can be shined through this window for a specified
period of time, which will erase the EPROM and
11/14/24
allow it to be reprogrammed again. Obviously
this is much more useful than a regular PROM,
but it does require the erasing light. Continuing
the "CD" analogy, this technology is analogous to
a reusable CD-RW.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM
(EEPROM): The next level of eras ability is the
EEPROM, which can be erased under software
control. This is the most flexible type of ROM,
and is now commonly used for holding BIOS
programs. When you hear reference to a "flash
BIOS" or doing a BIOS upgrade by "flashing",
this refers to reprogramming the BIOS EEPROM
11/14/24
 with a special software program. Here we are
blurring the line a bit between what "read-only"
really means, but remember that this rewriting is
done maybe once a year or so, compared to real
read-write memory (RAM) where rewriting is
done often many times per second!

Random Access Memory (RAM)

The kind of memory used for holding programs
and data being executed is called random access
memory or RAM. RAM differs from read-only
memory (ROM) in that it can be both read and
written. It is considered volatile storage because
11/14/24
unlike ROM, the contents of RAM are lost when
the power is turned off. Obviously, RAM needs
to be writeable in order for it to do its job of
holding programs and data that you are working
on. The volatility of RAM also means that you
risk losing what you are working on unless you
save it frequently.

11/14/24
11/14/24
There are many different types of RAMs, including
static RAM (SRAM) and many flavors of dynamic
RAM (DRAM).
Static RAM (SRAM)
 Static RAM is a type of RAM that holds its
data without external refresh, for as long as
power is supplied to the circuit. This is contrasted
to dynamic RAM (DRAM), which must be
refreshed many times per second in order to hold
its data contents. SRAMs don't require external
refresh circuitry or other work in order for them
to keep their data intact and SRAM is faster than
DRAM. SRAM is superior to DRAM, and we 11/14/24
 would use it exclusively if only we could do so
economically. Unfortunately, 32 MB of SRAM
would be prohibitively large and costly, which is
why DRAM is used for system memory. SRAMs
are used instead for level 1 cache and level 2
cache memory, for which it is perfectly suited;
cache memory needs to be very fast, and not very
large.
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
 Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that only
holds its data if it is continuously accessed by
special logic called a refresh circuit. Many
hundreds of times each second, this circuitry11/14/24
reads
the contents of each memory cell, whether the
memory cell is being used at that time by the
computer or not. Due to the way in which the cells
are constructed, the reading action itself refreshes
the contents of the memory. If this is not done
regularly, then the DRAM will lose its contents,
even if it continues to have power supplied to it.
This refreshing action is why the memory is called
dynamic. All PCs use DRAM for their main
system memory, instead of SRAM, even though
DRAMs are slower than SRAMs and require the
overhead of the refresh circuitry.
11/14/24
Generally Static RAM and Dynamic RAM
summarized as follow:
Static RAM
 It uses transistor to store data.
 Doesn't need refreshment because it is made
mainly from transistor.
 It is the fastest memory.
 It is difficult to manufacture it in large capacity
[size]. Therefore, you may not get it in the mad
easily.
 It is used to build cache memory.
Note: The cache memory is a small size memory,
which found inside the CPU [and built-in 11/14/24
motherboard]. If no cache memory, the CPU will be
in a wait-state to talk to the other memory. Faster
the speed of the cache memory, the better the
performance of the CPU will be.

Dynamic RAM
 It uses capacitor to store data.
 It needs a periodic refresh because 1t 1S 1
mainly from capacitors.
 It uses more power than SRAM.
 Easy to manufacture and used to build DRAM
that most people call it RAM.
11/14/24
RAM modules
 SIMM: - Single Inline Memory Module. It is a
type memory stick found in 486 (old) and some
Pentium systems. These RAM modules are
available in either 30-pin or 72-pin layouts. 30-
pin SIMMs put out 8 bits of data on the data bus
at one time, which makes them 8-bits wide. They
come in 1-16MB sticks. 72-pin SIMMs are 32-
bits wide and are available in MB to 64MB sticks.

11/14/24
 DIMM: - stands for Dual Inline Memory
Module. It is faster in speed and better in
capacity for regular desktop PCs look similar to
SIMMs, but are wider and longer. DIMMs have
168-pins, are 64-bits wide, and range in capacity
from 8M B to 256MB sticks. The 144-pin SO
DIMMs are also 64 bits wide and come in
roughly the same capacities as regular DIMMs.
The 72-pin SO DIMMs for laptop PCs, in
contrast, are only 32-bits wide.

11/14/24
 RIMM: - stands for Rambus Inline Memory
Module in RIMM, the open slot must be filled
with a sp stick called CRIMM (Continuous
RIMM). Sticks look like DIMMs, but have 184
pins and are 16-18-bits wide. Rambus memory
modules can be purchased in 32, 48, 64, 96, 128,
and 256MB sizes, and have 600, 700, and 800
MHz data transfer rates.

11/14/24
Hard disks
 Hard disks consist of one or more magnetic
disks contained in a box. They are used as
storage media in the PC, where you store
programs and other digital data.
 In the early years of PC development, the low
cost floppy drives were the preferred storage
media. But with IBM's XT in 1983-84, the hard
disk became the preferred medium. The first hard
disks were rather large units (5.25" diameter) and
of poor quality.

11/14/24
11/14/24
11/14/24
11/14/24
 The modern hard disks are 3.5" diameter.
A typical example is the Quantum Fireball,
which you see above. The cover plate has been
removed, so you can see the top arm with its
read/write head.
 A hard disk uses round, flat disks called
platters, coated on both sides with a special
media material designed to store information in
the form of magnetic patterns.
 The platters are mounted by cutting a hole in
the center and stacking them onto a spindle.
The platters rotate at high speed, driven by a
special spindle motor connected to the spindle.
11/14/24
Special electromagnetic read/write devices called
heads are mounted onto sliders and used to either
record information onto the disk or read
information from it.
 The sliders are mounted onto arms, all of
which are mechanically connected into a single
assembly and positioned over the surface of the
disk by a device called an actuator.
 A logic board controls the activity of the other
components and communicates with the rest of
the PC. Each platter has two heads, one on the top
of the platter and one on the bottom, so a hard
disk with three platters (normally) has six 11/14/24
 surfaces and six total heads.
Each platter has its information recorded in
concentric circles called tracks. Each track is
further broken down into smaller pieces called
sectors, each of which holds 512 bytes of
information.

Read/write heads
 All hard disks consist of thin platters with a
magnetic coating. They rotate quite fast inside a
metal container. Data are written and read by
read/write heads, which are designed to ride on a
microscopic cushion of air, without touching the
11/14/24
platter. They register bits from the magnetic
coating, which races past them. On the
illustration below, you see a hard disk with three
platters. It has 6 read/write heads, which move
synchronously.

11/14/24
 The arms, which guide the movement of the
read/write heads, move in and out. The
read/write head consists of a tiny electromagnet.
The shape of the head end acts like an air foil,
lifting the read/write head slightly above the
spinning disk below.
 When the disk rotates under the read/write
head, it can either read existing data or write new
ones: If a current is applied to the coil, the head
will become magnetic. This magnetism will
orient the micro magnets in the track. This is
write mode.
 If the head moves along the track without 11/14/24
 current applied to the coil, it will sense the micro
magnets in the track. This magnetism will induce
a current in the coil. These flashes of current
represent the data on the disk. This is read mode.

Hard Disk Logical Structures and File Systems

 The file system is the general name given to
the logical structures and software routines used
to control access to the storage on a hard disk
system. The nature of the logical structures on
the hard disk has an important influence on the
performance, reliability, expandability and
compatibility of your storage subsystem. 11/14/24
Master Boot Record (MBR)
 To ensure that the PC can always boot
regardless of which BIOS is in the machine, chip
makers and BIOS manufacturers arrange so that
the processor, once turned on, always starts
executing at the same place, FFFF0h.
 In a similar manner, every hard disk must have
a consistent "starting point" where key
information is stored about the disk, such as how
many partitions it has, what sort of partitions they
are, etc.
 The place where this information is stored is
called the master boot record (MBR). 11/14/24
It is also sometimes called the master boot
sector or even just the boot sector. (Though the
master boot sector should not be confused with
volume boot sectors, which are different.)
 The master boot record is always located at
cylinder 0, head 0, and sector 1, the first sector
on the disk. This is the consistent "starting
point" that the disk always uses. When the
BIOS boots the machine, it will look here for
instructions and information on how to boot the
disk and load the operating system.
The master boot record contains the following
structures: 11/14/24
 Master Partition Table: This small table
contains the descriptions of the partitions that are
contained on the hard disk. There is only room in
the master partition table for the information
describing four partitions. Therefore, a hard disk
can have only four true partitions, also called
primary partitions. Any additional partitions are
logical partitions that are linked to one of the
primary partitions. One of the partitions is marked
as active, indicating that it is the one that the
computer should use for booting up.

11/14/24
The following procedure outlines the installation of
a hard disk.
1. Disconnect the power to the computer
2. Configure the appropriate master/slave
settings or SCSI ID for the drive
3. Insert the drive into an available drive bay. If
the drive is too small for the bay, you will
need a mounting kit
4. Screw in the 4 screws - 2 on each side of the
bay
5. If the drive is an IDE disk, connect the IDE
cable to the drive. There should be a stripe
along 1 edge of the cable. 11/14/24
 This stripe denotes pin 1. Pin 1 on the drive is
usually closest to the power connector on the
drive, however, you should consult the
manufacturers documentation. Then connect
the signal cable to the motherboard ID1 or
ID2 interface making sure to note the pin 1
orientation there as well. If the drive is a SCSI
drive, a SCSI cable would be connected from
the drive to a SCSI controller card.
6. Connect one of the power supply's power
connectors to the drive

11/14/24
Hard disk maintenance
 Avoid rough handling
 Never move a disk when it is still spinning
 Never expose the internal housing to open air
 Perform regular data backups and disk
maintenance tasks(Disk cleanup and Disk De-
fragmentation)

The Optic Media (CD-ROMs and DVD)

 CD-ROM and DVD are optic readable media,
contrary to hard disks, floppy disks and tapes,
which are magnetic.
MThe optic storage media are read with a very
11/14/24
thin and very precisely aimed laser beam. They
have clear advantages in the areas of data density
and stability: Data can be packed much more
densely in optic media than in magnetic media.
And they have much longer life span.
 It is presumed that magnetic media, such as a
hard disk or DAT (digital audio tape) can
maintain their data for a maximum of five years.
The magnetism simply fades away in time.
Conversely, the life span of optic media are
counted in tens of years.

11/14/24
The Compact Disk
The compact disk (CD) was introduced by
Philips and Sony in 1980 It is a small plastic disk
with a reflecting metal coating, usually aluminum.
Myriads of tiny indentations are burned into this
coating. These indentations contain the music in
millions of bits. The CD is organized in tracks.
The CD-ROM The CD-ROM (Read Only
Memory) came as an extension of the CD in 1984.
In principle, the media and the drives are the same.
The difference is in the data storage organization. In
a CD ROM, the data are stored in sectors, which
can be read independently - like from a hard disk.
11/14/24
About Optic Data Storage
 The CD-ROM can be compared to a floppy
drive, because the disks are removable. It can also
be compared with a hard drive, because of similar
data storage capacity. Actually, a CD-ROM disk
can hold up to 700 MB of data.
 In the optic readable CD-ROM, the data
storage consists of millions of indentations burnt
into the lacquer coated, light reflecting silver
surface.
 The burnt dents reflect less light than the shiny
surface. A weak laser beam is sent to the disk
through a two-way mirror and the sensor registers
11/14/24
the difference in light reflection from the burnt
and shiny areas as zeros and ones.

Tracks
Our data consist of bits, each of which is a burnt
dent or a shiny spot on the CD-ROM disk. Music
CDs are designed much in the same manner. The
bits are not splashed across the disk, but arranged
in a pattern along the track. Without that
organization, you could not read the data. The
platters in hard disks and floppies are organized
in concentric tracks. There can be hundreds of
those from center to periphery: 11/14/24
 The CD-ROM is designed differently. It has only
one track, a spiral winding its way from the center
to the outer edge: This 6 km long spiral track
holds up to 700 MB data in about 5.5 billion dots
(each is one bit).

CD-Rom Technology
 CD-ROM store data as a series of 1s and 0s,
just like a floppy or a hard disk drive. However,
instead of using magnetic energy to read and
write data, CD readers and writers user laser
energy
11/14/24
 A CD platter is composed of a reflective layer
of aluminum applied to a synthetic base that is
composed of polymers. A layer of transparent
polycarbonate covers the aluminum. A
protective coating of lacquer is applied to the
surface to protect it from dust, dirt and scratches.
 Data is written by creating pits and lands on
the CD’s surface. A pit a depression on the
surface, and a land is the height of the original
surface.
 The transition from a land to a pit or a pit to a
land represents a binary character 1. Lands and
pits represent 0 11/14/24
  The reading of data is based on timing, the
speed at which the CD is rotating and the
reflection of light.

The DVD media

 The DVD is a high-capacity optic media with
capacity 4.7gb
 The DVD standard was developed in the mid
1990s by leading companies like Philips and
Sony. DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk.
 The DVD is an all-round disk, which probably
will replace CD-ROM and laser disks.
11/14/24
 Some DVD drives can both read and write the
disks. The drives are sold in many versions and
with many incompatible sub-standards.
 The DVD is a flat disk of the same size as a
CD. It holds a diameter of 4.7 inches (12 cm) and
is .05 inches (1.2 mm) thick.
 Data are stored in a small indentation in a
spiral track, just like in the CD, only the tracks
are narrower.
 DVD disks are read by a laser beam of shorter
wave-length than used by the CDROM drives.
This allows for smaller indentations and
increased storage capacity. 11/14/24
DVD types
DVD-ROM This is the most simple format made
for data read-only. It is like a beefed-up CD-
ROM. This medium is usable for distribution of
software and other data for PC use.
DVD Video disk This the most important
standard. it is a highly sophisticated and very
complex format mixing video, sound and data in
a very special format.
DVD-R The Recordable DVD are written once
only like CD-R. This disk can hold 3.95 GB per
side . DVD RAM/+RW There a at least three
different and in-compatible formats of re-
11/14/24
 DVD. The disk can be written and read like a
hard disk or perhaps more like a CD-RW.

Troubleshooting CD-ROM
 The most common causes of optical disk
problems are scratches dirt and other
contamination
 It is possible to clean the bottom surface of the
CD with soft cloth. The best technique is to wipe
the disk in radial fashion, using strokes that start
from the center of the disk and emanate towards
the outer edge.
11/14/24
 This way the scratches will be perpendicular to
the tracks rather than parallel to them minimizing
the interference they might cause
 Read errors can also occur when dust
accumulates on the read lens of the drive. It is
possible to clean their drive by using canned air
or standard cleaners.
 If CD not recognized at boot
 First make sure the cable is connected
properly
 Check the master-slave jumpers, if both
drivers are on the same cable 11/14/24
  Check device manager for status of the
drive
 If “Not ready reading drive”
 Either you selected the CD too quickly
after loading and the OS needs to catch up or
the CD is dirty, clean with dry cloth.
 Use a soft clean dry cloth, never use a wet
solution.

7. Video System
Monitor
 Monitor is a display device that takes the
electrical signals from the video card and forms
11/14/24
an image using points of colored light on the
screen.
 A monitor may use one of the several display
technologies; CRT (Cathode Rays Tube), LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display) Gas plasma displays.

CAUTION Repairing the inside of monitors is a

job more in the realm of a TV repairman than a
computer technician. Monitors generally carry
warnings that they contain no user-serviceable
parts for good reason. It should not be taken as an
invitation to probe inside them where the risk of
serious electrical shock is high. 11/14/24
The Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
The cathode-ray tube (CRT) is the main
component of a traditional monitor. The rear of
the CRT holds a cylinder that contains one or
more electron guns. Most color monitors have
three guns in back-one for each of the colors red,
green, and blue. This combination (referred to as
RGB) allows the visual production of all colors.
The wide end of the CRT is the display screen,
which has a phosphor coating (a substance that
can emit light when hit with radiation). When
active, the guns beam a stream of charged
electrons onto the phosphorus coating. 11/14/24
When the coating is hit with the right amount of
energy, light is produced in a pattern of very
small dots. There is one dot for each primary
color (RGB), and the dots are grouped in patterns
close together. The name for a collection of all
dots in a specific location is a pixel (which stands
for picture element).

Screen Resolution
The term resolution refers to the degree of detail
offered in the presentation of an image;
computer-monitor manufacturers express
resolution in pixels per inch. The greater the
11/14/24
per inch, the sharper the picture. In an ordinary
screen, each pixel consists of three colors: Red,
green and blue. Thus, there are actually three "sub
dots" in each pixel. But they are so small that they
"melt" together as one dot:
Monitor resolution is usually expressed as "a" x
"b" where "a" is the number of horizontal pixels,
and "b" is the number of vertical pixels. For
example, 640 x 480 means that the monitor
resolution is 640 pixels horizontally by 480 pixels
vertically. For example: 640 x 480 is the standard
VGA resolution of 640 pixels per line, 480 lines
deep. 11/14/24
Power-Saving Features Because they are the
highest consumers of electrical current in the
average PC, most new monitors provide some
level of power-saving technology. Consequently,
VESA has established a standard set of power
economy controls to reduce power use when the
monitor is idle. These are collectively referred to
as Display Power-Management Signaling
(DPMS) modes.

11/14/24
Frequently turning a monitor on and off places stress
on the components. DPMS reduces the need to use
the mechanical switch to turn the device on or off.

11/14/24
Monitor Maintenance
Monitor care and troubleshooting are usually simple
tasks. Here are some general guidelines to follow:
 Make sure the enclosure is properly ventilated.
Covering the opening on the case can lead to
overheating. Dust the unit at regular intervals.
 Clean the face of the CRT gently: Follow the
instructions in the product manual. In most cases,
this means dusting the glass with a clean soft
cloth. Do not use window cleaners that contain
solvents on the unit.
 Make sure that all driver settings are kept
within the operating guidelines of the product.
11/14/24
Never operate at higher resolutions or refresh
rates than those specified by the vendor, and stay
within the limits of the display adapter.
 Use any automatic energy-conservation
features supported by the hardware and operating
system. Employ a screen saver on older models
that lack energy-saving features. If possible, do
not turn the monitor on and off more than twice a
day.
 When a monitor fails to operate or produces an
improper image, check the following:
 Check all cables, including power and
display. 11/14/24
 Check the front panel controls. Make any
appropriate minor adjustments that are needed.
 Check and, if needed, reinstall the display
drivers. Make sure all settings are within the
required limits. Reinstall by returning to a
plain 16-color, VGA display mode and adding
resolution; then increase the refresh rate.
 Try another display adapter; then, if the
problem is still unresolved, try another
computer.
 If the monitor still shows problems, refer to
a specialist for further tests.
11/14/24
Liquid crystal display (LCD) A digital display
technology that produces images on a flat surface by
shining light through liquid crystals and colored
filters.
 Takes up less space, consumes less power, and
produces less heat than traditional cathode-ray
tube monitors.
 Lack of flicker and low glare reduce eyestrain.
 Much more expensive than CRTs of
comparable size.

11/14/24
Available for years as the default display on
laptops, sleek screens based on liquid crystal
display technology are increasingly moving onto
the desktop. LCDs have many advantages over
cathode-ray tube monitors. They offer crisp text
and no annoying flicker, which means they can
help reduce eyestrain. Because they're usually less
than ten inches thick, desktop LCD monitors take
up much less space than their traditional CRT
counterparts. The downside: The color quality of
LCD displays typically can't compare with that of
CRTs, and the high price tags of desktop LCDs
mean they're still a luxury for most. 11/14/24
Video Adaptor
 It converts the processor’s output information
into a video signal that can be sent through a
cable to the monitor.
 The display adapter has gone through several
major evolutions as the nature of PC computing
has changed from simple word processing and
number crunching, to the graphics-intensive
world of Windows and multimedia Advanced
Display Systems The VGA card quickly became
commonplace for a PC display system, and the
race was on to produce cards with more colors,
more resolution, and additional features. 11/14/24
VESA (Video Electronics Standards Association)
agreed on a standard list of display modes that
extended VGA into the high-resolution world of
color and high photographic quality we know
today. The standard is known as SVGA (Super
VGA). The SVGA sets specifications for
resolution, refresh rates, and color depth for
compatible adapters. On Pentium and later PCs,
an SVGA adapter is the standard for display
adapters. The minimum resolution needed for
SVGA compatibility is 640 x 480 with 256
colors, and most modern adapters usually go far
beyond that. 11/14/24
Video Memory
The amount of memory on a display adapter is a
major factor in determining the screen resolution
and color depth that the card can manage. Just as
with system RAM, the video memory must be
able to operate at a speed that can keep up with
the processor, and the demands of the system
clock. If the display adapter is too slow at
updating the image on the monitor, the user is left
waiting or is presented with jerky mouse
movements and keystrokes that appear in delayed
bursts rather than as typed
11/14/24
Most video adapter cards have the following
components.
 The Video BIOS: Is the programming in the
BIOS chip that enables the system to display
information on the monitor during the POST and
boot sequences, before any other software drivers
have been loaded from the disk
 The Video Processor: Is the heart of any
video adapter and defines the card function and
performance levels.
 The Video memory: Video imaged are stored
while processing, the amount of memory on the
adapter determines the maximum screen 11/14/24
resolution and color depth that the device can
support.
 The digital to analog converter: is responsible
for converting the digital images produced by the
computer to analog signal that the monitor could
display. The Bus connector: The majority of
adapters on the market use PCI bus, the recent
bus AGP, a dedicated video bus deliver a
maximum bandwidth four times larger than a
comparable PCI bus.
 The Video driver: Generally supports the
processor on the video adapter, they enable the
software to communicate with the video adapter.
11/14/24
 The video driver also provides interface that can
be used to configure the display produced by the
adapter.

Adapter and display troubleshooting

 A defective of dysfunctional adapter is
replaced as a single unit rather than repaired
 If the display goes out swap with other monitor
to confirm if that display is the problem. If the
problem disappears then it almost certainly in the
display or cable, if not the problem is in the video
adapter or PC itself.
11/14/24
  The monitor cable can sometimes be the
source of display problems. A bent pin in the
connector that plugs into the video adapter can
prevent the monitor from displaying images
 Use specialized diagnostic and testing
programs like Display mate
 Display circuits can hold extremely high
voltages for hours, days or even weeks after the
power is shut off.
Sound System
What is a Sound?
 All sound starts as pressure variations
traveling through the air. Sound can come11/14/24
from
 anywhere a barking dog, a laughing child, a fire
engine’s siren, a person speaking.

The process of recording sound to a hard drive

requires sound to be carried through several
manipulations.
 First, sound must be translated from pressure
variations in the air to analog electrical signals.
This is accomplished by a microphone.
 These analog signals are amplified by the
sound card, then digitized (converted to a series of
representative digital words each taken at a fixed
time interval). 11/14/24
  The resulting stream of data is processed and
organized through the use of software, which
places the data into a standard file format. The
file is saved to the drive of choice (typically, a
hard drive).

The playback process is virtually the reverse of

recording.
 A software application opens a sound file on
the hard drive, and then passes the digital data
back to the sound card. Data is translated back
into equivalent analog levels ideally, the
reconstructed shape of the analog signal closely
11/14/24
 mimics the original digitized signal. The analog
signal is amplified, and then passed to a speaker.
 If the sound was recorded in stereo, the data is
divided into two channels that are separately
converted back to analog signals, amplified, and
sent to their corresponding speakers.
 Speakers convert the analog signal back into
traveling pressure waves that you can hear.
Troubleshooting a Sound Board
Traditionally, sound boards use many of the same
chipsets and basic components, but because each
board is designed a bit differently, it is very
difficult for commercial diagnostic products11/14/24
to
 identify failed IC functions. For the most part,
commercial and shareware diagnostics can only
identify whether a brand-compatible board is
responding or not. As a result, this chapter will
take the sub-assembly replacement approach.
When a sound board is judged to be defective, it
should be replaced outright.
The following tips might help you nail down a
sound problem most efficiently:
 Check to see that your speakers are connected,
powered, and turned on.
 Check that the speaker volume and sound11/14/24
card
master volume are turned up.
 Check to see that the mixer volume and master
volume are set properly.
 Be sure that the music or sound file(s) are
installed properly.
 Check that all sound card and multimedia
drivers are installed.
 Be sure that the drivers are up to date.
 Check for resource conflicts between the sound
card and other devices in the system.
 Be sure that the sound card is selected and
configured properly (especially for DOS apps).
 The sound device should be enabled and 11/14/24
 configured under CMOS.
 When no sound :
• set the adapter to default settings
• check the speakers connection
• when using powered speakers check supply
General notes on audio hardware
 If there are several empty bus slots from which
to choose, audio adapters should be installed in
the slot that is as far away as possible from other
cards in the computer. This reduces the possible
EM interference; it reduces stray audio signals
from one card that might affect the sound card.
11/14/24
 When using speakers rated less than four watts,
the volume control on the soundcard should not
be turned to maximum. The speakers may burn
from overload. Better results can be found by
plugging the sound card in to powered speakers
 The most common problem for audio adapters
is that they conflict with other devices installed in
the PC. Hardware conflicts are demonstrated by
adapter malfunction, repetition of the same sound
over and over or PC freezes
 It is always best to install an audio adapter by
using the default settings whenever possible. If
there is a conflict with another adapter, 11/14/24
it is recommended to modify the settings of the
other device rather then those of the audio
adapter.
 Although most computer speakers are
magnetically shielded, recorded tapes, credit
cards, or floppy disks should not be left in front
of speakers for a long time.

11/14/24
8. BIOS
Introduction to the BIOS
 The instructions that turn a PC into a useful
machine come in three stages, starting with
application programs, which are loaded by an
operating system, which in turn is loaded by a
bootstrap loader in the BIOS, which stands for
Basic Input/Output System.

11/14/24
 The BIOS is also responsible for allowing you
to control your computer's hardware settings, for
booting up the machine when you turn on the
power or hit the reset button and various other
system functions.
 The term BIOS is typically used to refer to the
system BIOS, however, various other components
such as video adapters and hard drives can have
their own BIOSes hardwired to them.
 When You switch on Electrical power to the
system. The microprocessor begins executing the
ROM-BIOS code.
 BIOS routines begin when the computer 11/14/24
is
booted and are mad up of 3 main operations.
Processor manufacturers program processors to
always look in the same place in the system BIOS
ROM for the start of the BIOS boot program.
 First, the Power On Self Tests (POST) are
conducted. These tests verify that the system is
operating correctly and will display an error
message and/or output a series of beeps known as
beep codes depending on the BIOS manufacturer.
 Second, is initialization in which the BIOS
looks for the video card. In particular, it looks for
the video card's built in BIOS program and runs
it. 11/14/24
 The BIOS then looks for other devices' ROMs to
see if any of them have BIOSes and they are
executed as well.
 Third, is to initiate the boot process. The BIOS
looks for boot information that is contained in file
called the master boot record (MBR) at the first
sector on the disk.
In most PCs, the BIOS has four main functions
Power On Self Test (POST) Test computer
hardware, ensuring hardware is properly
functioning before starting process of loading
Operating System. Additional information on the
POST can be found on our POST / Beep Codes 11/14/24
page. During this process, the PC communicates
what's going on-especially if it discovers
problems-through a series of beeps (Beep Codes
are given below) initially or text messages that
appear on the monitor if the video card functions
properly It is a built in program in the BIOS
chipset that tests the essential hardware part of
your PC. It shows the problem on text message on
screen or beeps sound on built-in speaker on the
system. Bootstrap Loader - Process of locating the
operating system. If capable Operating system
located, BIOS will pass the control to it.
11/14/24
BIOS - Software / Drivers which interfaces
between the operating system and your hardware.
When running DOS or Windows you are using
complete BIOS support.
BIOS / CMOS Setup - Configuration program
which allows you to configure hardware settings
including system settings such as computer
passwords, time, and date.
CMOS
CMOS is short for Complementary Metal-Oxide
Semiconductor. CMOS is a non-board
11/14/24
semiconductor chip powered by a CMOS battery
inside IBM compatible computers that stores
information such as the system time and system
settings for your computer; it is modified and
changed by entering the CMOS Setup.

11/14/24
Standard CMOS Features
 Here you can setup the basic BIOS features
such as date, time, type of floppy etc. Use the
arrow keys to move around and press enter to
select the required option. You can specify what
IDE devices you have such as Hard drive, CD-
ROM, ZIP drive etc.
 The easiest way to setup the IDE devices is by
leaving it set to auto. This allows the BIOS to
detect the devices automatically so you don't
have to do it manually. At the bottom, it also
displays the total memory in your system.
11/14/24
Integrated Peripherals This menu allows you to
change the various I/O devices such as IDE
controllers, serial ports, parallel port, keyboard etc.
You can make changes as necessary.

PCI Configurations
This menu allows you to configure your PCI
slots. You can assign IRQ's for various PCI slots.
It is recommended that you leave the default
settings as it can get a bit complicated messing
around with IRQ's.

11/14/24
Boot Sequence
After loading and providing support for essential
hardware, the BIOS searches for boot devices.
By default, on current motherboards, the BIOS
searches for the floppy drive first, and then the
hard drive, and, finally, the CDROM drive. You
can configure the search order in the CMOS
settings program.
Set Password
To password protect your BIOS you can specify a
password. Make sure you don't forget the
password or you can not access the BIOS.
11/14/24
 The only way you can access the BIOS is by
resetting it using the reset jumper on the
motherboard

Save and Exit Setup

To save any changes you made to the BIOS you
must choose this option. From the dialog box
choose "Y".

11/14/24
Exit without Saving
If you don't want to save changes made to the
BIOS, choose "N" from the dialog box.

To clear an unknown BIOS password.

If you have mistakenly forgot or lost your BIOS
password or you receive a password at boot that
you do not know, you will need to clear the BIOS
password by one of the following methods.
11/14/24
Precaution: When inside the computer please be
sure of the potential of ESD.
 On the computer motherboard locate the BIOS
clear / password jumper or dipswitch and change
its position. Once this jumper has been changed,
turn on the computer and the password should be
cleared. Once cleared, turn the computer off and
return the jumper or dipswitch to its original
position.
 Additionally, when looking for the jumper /
dipswitch the label of that switch can be anything;
however, in most cases will be labeled
11/14/24
CLEAR – CLEAR CMOS - CLR - CLRPWD -
PASSWD - PASSWORD – PWD
 On the computer motherboard locate and
remove the CMOS battery for at least 10 minutes
allowing the computer to lose its information.
 If one of the above solutions do not clear the
password or you are unable to locate the jumpers
or solder beads, it is recommended you contact
the computer manufacturer or motherboard
manufacturer for the steps on clearing the
computer password.

11/14/24
Beep Codes
 The beep codes for each PC vary according to
the BIOS manufacturer, although you'll find
certain codes on most PCs.
 Below are IBM BIOS Beep codes that can
occur. However, because of the wide variety of
models shipping with this BIOS, the beep codes
may vary.

11/14/24
Note:
 When the real-time clock starts losing time, its
time to replace the CMOS battery
 When changing the hardware in PC, remember
to check the CMOS settings if necessary 11/14/24
11/14/24