Formal Logic: Propositions,

Truth Table, and

Implications
Lesson 1 – Part 2
Learning Outcomes
• Use mathematically correct terminology and notation
and apply logical reasoning to solve a variety of
problems.
• Construct correct direct and indirect proofs.
• Construct truth tables for propositions and implications.
Propositions
• A proposition is a statement that is either true (T) or false (F),
but not both.
• Propositions: Not propositions:
• I am a man. How are you?
• I am taller than 170 cm. Go to catch the dog.
• You are studying in
La Salle University.
• 1+1 = 3.
Negation of a Proposition
• Let p be a proposition.
• The statement
“It is not the case that p”
is another proposition, called the negation of p.
• The negation of p is denoted by ¬p and read “not p”.
• Example:
• P: “It is a sunny day.”
• ¬p : “It is not the case that it is a sunny day.”,
• or simply “It is not a sunny day.”
Prove logical equivalence
• Statements and are said to be logically equivalent if
they are provable from each other or have the same
truth value in every model.

Denoted by p ↔ q or p ≡ q
Truth tables
• Displays the relationships between the truth values of
propositions.
• Valuable in the determination of the truth values of complex
propositions constructed from simpler propositions.
• The number of combinations (rows) can be calculated using 2n
where n is the number of variables.

The truth table for the negation of a proposition

Logic Operators (Connectives)
• Used to form compound statements.
• E.g.,: Stock prices are increasing but interest rates are
steady.
• p: Stock prices are increasing
• q: Interest rates are steady
•p ∧q
The conjunction “but” was used as the
logical AND operator.
Conjunction (AND)
• Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p and q”,
denoted by p ∧ q, is the proposition that is true when both p
and q are true and is false otherwise.
• The proposition p ∧ q is called the conjunction of p and q.
Disjunction (OR)
• Let p and q be propositions. The proposition “p or q”, denoted
by p ∨ q, is the proposition that is false when p and q are
both false and true otherwise.
• The proposition p ∨ q is called the disjunction of p and q.
Exclusive Or (X-OR)
• Let p and q be propositions. The exclusive or of p and q,
denoted by p ⊕ q, is the proposition that is true when exactly
one of p and q is true and is false otherwise.
Conditional Propositions
(Implication)
• Let p and q be propositions. The implication p → q is the
proposition that is false when p is true and q is false and true
otherwise.
• In this implication, p is called the hypothesis and q is called the
conclusion.
• Expressions:
• if p, then q
• p is sufficient for q
• p implies q
• p only if q
• q is necessary for p
Related Implications
• Contrapositive
• Logically equivalent to the original statement.
• ¬q → ¬p is called the contrapositive of p → q
• Inverse
• NOT logically equivalent to the original statement.
• ¬p → ¬q is called the inverse of p → q
• Converse
• NOT logically equivalent to the original statement.
• q → p is called the converse of p → q
Negation of Implications
• De Morgan’s Law
• p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q
• ¬(p→q)≡¬(¬p∨q)≡p∧¬q
• For example:
• ¬(If you work hard, then you will succeed)
• ¬(You do not work hard or you succeed)
• (You work hard and you do not succeed.
Biconditional
• Let p and q be propositions. The biconditional p ↔ q is the
proposition that is true when p and q have the same truth
values and is false otherwise.
• In this biconditional, p is necessary and sufficient for q, or p if and
only if q.
Tautology and Contradiction
• Tautology: a logical statement that is always true for all
possible truth values of its variable sub-statements.
• For example: is a tautology
• Contradiction: a statement that must always be false,
regardless of the truth values of its variable sub-statements.
• For example: is a contradiction
Contingency
• Contingency: a formula which has both some true and some
false values for every value of its propositional variables..
• Not a tautology or a contradiction.
• For example.
LO Exercises
GI
C - Construct the truth table for each of the
T following statements
r 1. ~[(p ∧ q) v ~(p v q)]
ut 2. (p ~q) (p  q)
3. ~p ∧ (q v ~r)
h
T
a
bl
e
 Exercises
LO
GI
Determine the converse, inverse and
C - contrapositive of the given conditional
I statements.
m 1. If Mar goes to school, then Anthony will go
pl home.
2. If Rudy wins the election, then Jejomar will
ic sell candies.
at
io
n
 Exercises
LO
GI
If Mar goes to school, then Anthony will go
C - home.
I p: Mar goes to school
m q: Anthony will go home
p  q, contrapositive ~q  ~p:
pl If Anthony will not go home, then Mar will not go to
ic school.
at
io
n
 Exercises
LO
GI
If Mar goes to school, then Anthony will go
C - home.
I p: Mar goes to school
m q: Anthony will go home
p  q, inverse ~p  ~q:
pl If Mar will not go to school, then Anthony will not go
ic home.
at
io
n
 Exercises
LO
GI
If Mar goes to school, then Anthony will go
C - home.
I p: Mar goes to school
m q: Anthony will go home
p  q, converse q  p:
pl If Anthony will go home, then Mar will go to school.
ic
at
io
n
LAWS OF LOGICAL
EQUIVALENCE
L
E
Q
Law Logical Equivalence
UI 1.Commutative
V
A
L 2. Associative
E
N
C 3. Distributive
E
-
L 4. Identity
A
W5. Inverse
S
L
E
Q Law Logical Equivalence
UI
V 6. Double Negation
A 7. Idempotent
L
E
N
C 8. De Morgan
E
-
9. Universal Bound
L
A
10. Absorption
W
S
L
E
Q Additional Logical Equivalence
UI
V 1. Exportation Law
A 2. Contrapositive
L
E 3. Reduction Ad
N Absurdum
C
E 4. Equivalence
- 5. Implication
L 6. Exclusive-or
A
W
S
Practice Problems
Practice Problem #1
(p → q) ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ q
(~p ∨ q) (p ∨ q) Implication
(q ∨ ~p) (q ∨ p) Commutative
q ∨ (~p p) Distributive
q∨F Inverse
q
Practice Problem #2
[∨∼ (∧ ∨ )]
∨ ∼ (𝑝 ∨ ∼𝑞)
Let p = a, q = b
[a ∨ (~a b)] ∨ (a ∨ ~b) Distributive
[(a ∨ ~a) (a ∨ b)] ∨ (a ∨ ~b) Inverse
[T ∧ (a ∨ b)] ∨ (a ∨ ~b) Distributive
[(T ∧ a) ∨ (T b)] ∨ (a ∨ ~b) Identity
(a ∨ b) ∨ (a ∨ ~b) Commutative
(a ∨ a) ∨ (b ∨ ~b) Identity & Inverse
a∨T Universal Bound
T
Practice Problem #3
(𝑝 ∨ ∼𝑟) ∧ ∼[(𝑞 ∨ 𝑟) ∨ ∼(𝑟 ∨ 𝑝)]
Let p = a, q = b, r = c
(a ∨ ~c) ∧ ~[(b ∨ c) ∨ ~(c ∨ a)] De Morgan
(a ∨ ~c) ∧ ~(b ∨ c) ∧ ~(~(c ∨ a)) Double Negative
(a ∨ ~c) ∧ ~(b ∨ c) ∧ (c ∨ a) Associative
(a ∨ ~c) ∧ (c ∨ a) ∧ ~(b ∨ c) Distributive
a ∨ (~c ∧ c) ∧ ~(b ∨ c) Inverse
a ∨ F ∧ ~(b ∨ c) Identity & De
Morgan
a ∧ ~b ∧ ~c
Applications of Formal Logic
Examples:
• Smullyan’s puzzles
• Sudoku
Exercises
G
I Exercises
C
A
L Simplify the following statements using the
E Laws of Equivalence.
Q
U
IV
A
L
E
N
C
E
References
• Kwong, H. (2015, November 6). A Spiral Workbook for
Discrete Mathematics. Milne Open Textbooks.
https://milneopentextbooks.org/a-spiral-workbook-for-discre
te-mathematics/