UNIT -2

Sensors and
Transducers
Dr. Shimi S.L
Associate Professor, EE
PEC(Deemed to be University),
Chandigarh
• Sensors and transducers: Introduction,
Performance characteristics of transducers,
Transducer for displacement (Potentiometer,
strain-gauge, Optical encoder, LVDT, Hall effect
sensor); velocity (Tachogenerator), force (load
cell), pressure (Piezoelectric sensors, Tactile
sensor), liquid level (Floats, Differential
pressure), Temperature (Bimetallic strips, RTDs,
Thermistors, Thermocouples) and light sensor
(Photovoltaic- transducer, LDR, Photodiode,
Photo Transistor).
 Learning outcomes
• To explain and analyze the fundamental performance
characteristics of transducers.
• Demonstrate a deep understanding of transducers used
for measuring displacement, velocity, force, pressure,
liquid level, temperature and light .
• Conduct laboratory sessions to work with actual
transducers and sensor setups.
• Develop the ability to integrate theoretical knowledge
with practical applications in designing and implementing
sensor systems for various engineering purposes.
• Encourage collaborative projects where students design
and build sensor systems and presenting clear
justifications for their choice of transducers in specific
 1.Sensors in Mechatronics System
• An intelligent system works sequentially in
closed loop system with measurement,
comparison and decision followed by action.
• Measurement being at the first stage; role of
sensor/transducer is very important as
sensor(s)/transducer(s) is responsible for
collecting information regarding physical
parameter(s) such as pressure,
temperature ,voltage ,humidity ,force,
distance, etc.
• If sensor is selected properly as per
requirement, data/information will be
more accurate and system is expected to
work properly if other stage components
are good.
• Choice of sensor depends on objective of
the system under development,
application, precision, working
environment, cost, reliability, size, power
consumption.
Measurement System
 2.Difference between Sensors & Transducers

A sensor in response to a physical quantity

/phenomenon such as force, temperature,
speed, produces a corresponding proportional
change in physical phenomena, such as
electrical, mechanical and magnetic etc. in terms
of resistance, inductance, capacitance, voltage
and current.
• Transducer: It converts the change in one form of
energy into a change in another form ( electrical)
of energy. ie. converts the output signal of a sensor
into an electrical signal.

Transduction

Sensing or detecting
element and the
transduction elements.
 Sensing Mechanism
It includes sensors and transductor or transducer
which receives energy from environment /system
parameter or its change to produce an analog signal.
Sensor

Mercury thermometer; the mercury

expands easily when the temperature
increases to send a reading format for
the user. There are no electrical signs
or changes. So, it is originally a sensor.
Transducers

•Loud speaker takes electrical energy in

the form of electrical
signals and converts it into sound
waves that we can hear.
•The electromechanical system of a
speaker enables this conversion. It
comprises several components,
Here’s how it works:
• An input signal (electrical energy) is
sent to the speaker.
• The voice coil interacts with the
magnetic field created by the magnets.
As a result, the speaker
cone (diaphragm) moves back and forth.
• This motion of the cone and suspension
system converts mechanical
energy into acoustic energy—the
sound waves we perceive

Transducers Transducers
General Classification of Transducers
• Classification based on the Principle
of Transduction
Classified by the transduction medium.
The process of conversion of energy from one
form to another is called transduction.
The transduction medium may be resistive,
inductive or capacitive depends on the
conversion process / converts the input signal
into resistance, inductance and capacitance resp
ectively.
 Primary and Secondary Transducers
• Some transducers contain the mechanical as
well as electrical device.
• The mechanical device converts the physical
quantity to be measured into a mechanical
signal.
• Such mechanical device are called as the
primary transducers, because they deal with
the physical quantity to be measured.
• The electrical device then convert this
mechanical signal into a corresponding
electrical signal. Such electrical device are
known as secondary transducers.
Primary transducers are mechanical
devices that detect a physical quantity
and convert it into a measurable signal.
• Bourdon tube
• Diaphragm
• Bellows
• Bimetallic thermometer
• Liquid filled thermometer
 Primary and Secondary Transducers

• Ref fig in which the

diaphragm act as primary
transducer. Diaphragm
• It convert pressure (the
quantity to be measured)
into displacement (the
mechanical signal).
• The displacement is then
converted into change in
resistance using strain gauge.
• Hence strain gauge acts as
the secondary transducer.
Analog and Digital Transducer
Classified by output signals. It may be
continuous or discrete.
Analog Transducer – The Analog
transducer changes the input quantity
into a continuous function. Eg. strain
gauge, L.V.D.T,
thermocouple, thermistor
Digital Transducer – These
transducers convert an input quantity
into a digital signal or in the form of
the pulse(high or low power). Eg. shaft
• Light Sensor used to Produce a Digital Signal
The speed of the rotating shaft is measured by
using a digital LED/Opto-detector sensor.
• Active transducer – No additional
source for excitation signal is required.
Develops theirs owns voltage or current.
Piezoelectric sensors, photo diode,
thermocouple, dynamos
• Passive transducer - requires the power
from an external supply source - RTDs,
thermistors, photoconductive devices,
PN junction diode, hall effector sensors
opto-electronic devices, strain gauge
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Performance characteristics of transducers
• Quality parameters of a sensor system
(Selection of sensors)
• Sensitivity: It is the ability of the measuring
instrument to respond to changes in measured
quantity. It is ratio of change of output to unit
change of input parameter. S = ΔO / Δ I
• I - Input, quantity to be sensed
• O - Output, signal which can be recorded
Range : Maximum and
minimum limits of
physical variables under
measurement. Pressure
sensor may have a range
of -400 to +400 mm Hg.
Span : This gives the difference
of a sensor parameter variable
measured from the maximum to
minimum input values of a
sensor. Pressure transmitter
maybe re-scaled to read 4mA at
0.8 bar and 20 mA at 1.2 bar,
span ranging from 0 to 0.4 bar
Resolution: It is defined
as the smallest
increment in the
measured value that can
be detected.
Error: It is the difference
between measured values
of a physical parameter
and the true value of the
same parameter.
Systematic error, Random
error and Gross error
Systematic error - instrument error
cause due to misuse, loading,
instrumental defect, environmental
error, dust, temperature

Random error – noise (unaware factors)

Gross error - loose connections, human

while reading, recording and estimating
 Accuracy: Closeness of the
measured value of a variable to its
true value.
Error in absolute term= Measured
parameter value – true parameter
value
Absolute error
Error in relative term =
True value
• Precision: Precision is the ability
of an instrument to reproduce a
certain set of readings within a
given deviation.
• Repeatability: It is the ability to
reproduce the output signal
exactly when the same measured
quantity is applied repeatedly
under the same environmental
conditions.
Precision & Accuracy
• Stability (Drift):It is the ability to
give same output when a constant
input is measured over a period of
time.
• Dead band: It is the range of input
values for which there is no output.
Hysteresis: The difference between
two output values that correspond
to the same input depending on the
trajectory followed by the sensor
(i.e., magnetization in
ferromagnetic materials)
]
Hysteresis:
• Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude error
caused in the output for a given value of input,
when this value is approached from opposite
directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then
descending order.
Causes are backlash, elastic deformations,
magnetic characteristics, frictional effects
(mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings
in both direction and then taking its arithmetic
mean.
• Backlash: Hysteresis caused by looseness in
a mechanical joint. The maximum distance
or angle through which any part of a
mechanical system can be moved in one
direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of a Sensor System

• Static characteristics are the values

given when steady state conditions
occur. Input is not varying and
output is constant. Output changes
only due to drift.
• Dynamic characteristics refer to
time varying signal with
corresponding time varying output.
Dynamic Characteristics of a
Sensor System
Response time: This is the time which
elapses after a step input, when the
transducer gives the output
corresponding to 95 percentage of
steady state value.
Time constant: Time taken between
application of input and 63.2 % of steady
state value.
• Rise time: Time taken for
the output to rise to some
specified percentage of the
steady state output. From 10%
to 90%.
• Settling time: This is the
time taken for the output to
settle within some percentage
e.g. 2% of steady state value.
Transducer for displacement
Resistive Transducers: Change in
force/displacement causes change in
resistance.
Potentiometric Transducers types
(i) Linear (ii)Rotary (iii)Helix
Displacement and Position measurement
 Strain Gauge
Change in force causes change in resistance
proportional to strain experienced by object.
Strain Gauge Types:(i)Felt (ii)Helical (iii)Foil types

Bonded resistance type

Stress: Force experienced by an object per unit
Area in order to distribute the internal force to
resist the external force applied uniformly on
the object. 𝐹
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠=𝜎=
𝐴

Strain: Amount of deformation ie. Changes in

per unit length of an object under a force.
∆𝐿
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛=∈=
𝐿
Gauge factor:
=
• Length 0.008 to 4 in
• Resistance 120-5000 ohms
• (30Ω to 3 kΩ unstressed)
Measurement using Strain Gauge
It requires a Wheatstone bridge arrangement to
convert change in resistance into voltage .
Inductive Transducers:
Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT) /
Transformer:
Change in force /displacement causes change in
voltage.
Main Parts: (i)Primary coil
(ii) S1&S2 secondary coils
(iii) movable iron core (Annealed NiH2 magnetic
material with high permeability).
Frequency range (1-10kHz)
𝑉𝑠 𝑁𝑠
=
𝑉 𝑝 𝑁𝑝

D=K
 𝑑𝑖
𝑉 𝑠 =𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑉 𝑠 1 = 𝐾 1 sin ⁡(𝑤𝑡 − ∅ )
𝑉 𝑠 2 = 𝐾 2 sin ⁡(𝑤𝑡 − ∅ )

𝒆 𝟏 ( 𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 )
0
𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝟐( 𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝑴𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝐾 1 > 𝐾 2 )
𝑉 𝑠 =𝑉 𝑠 1 −𝑉 𝑠 2 =( 𝐾 ¿ ¿ 1− 𝐾 ¿¿ 2)sin ( 𝑤𝑡 −∅ ) ¿ ¿
(o/p Out of phase by 180o )

𝑉 𝑠 =𝑉 𝑠 1 −𝑉 𝑠 2 =−(𝐾 ¿ ¿ 1− 𝐾 ¿ ¿ 2)sin ( 𝑤𝑡 −∅ ) ¿ ¿
𝑉 𝑠 =𝑉 𝑠 1 −𝑉 𝑠 2 =( 𝐾 ¿ ¿ 2− 𝐾 ¿ ¿ 1) sin ¿ ¿ ¿ ¿
Very small linear and angular displacement, quality measurement
Problematic in electromagnetic area
LVDT Characteristics
 Hall Effect Transducer
It consists of
(i) a current carrying metallic plate
(ii)a magnetic field perpendicular to the
plate (iii) transverse voltage output.
𝐵. 𝐼 𝐵.𝐼
𝑉 h= =𝑅 h
𝑑 . 𝑛 .𝑒 𝑑
B -> Magnetic flux density
n -> charge carrier density
e ->electron charge -> Hall coefficient
velocity
Optical Encoder :
Optical Encoder – Converts
linear/angular position/
displacement into digital output.
Incremental Encoder are used to detect
changes in rotation with respect to a reference
position – measurement of Angular Velocity
Absolute Encoder are used to detect actual
changes position, displacement or angular
position.
Contd...
Digital Absolute Encoder
How many bit resolution encoder is required for
measuring 0.03 degree in an absolute encoder?
Transducer for Velocity Measurement
 Tachogenerator
• Tachogenerator is used to measure angular velocity
• Toothed wheel of ferro
magnetic material
• Pickup coil wound on
permanent magnet
• Air gap between coil and
ferro magnetic material
changes
Variable reluctance tachogenerator ∅ =∅ 0 + ∅ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑡
𝑑∅ 𝑑
𝑒=− 𝑁 =− 𝑁 (∅ ¿ ¿ 0+∅ 𝑎 cos 𝑛𝑤𝑡 )=𝑁 ∅ 𝑎 𝑛𝑤 sin 𝑛𝑤𝑡 ¿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
e= 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝑛𝑤𝑡 𝑊h𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑁 ∅ 𝑎 𝑛𝑤
Variable reluctance tachogenerator

DC tachogenerator

Rotating conductor
cuts the magnetic field
it induces a voltage
proportional to the
AC tachogenerator shaft speed of motor
• Contact Type Tachometer
• Non Contact Type Tachometer
Laser beam is pointed on a
reflective spot of an rotating shaft

• DC type Tachometer
• AC type Tachometer
• Electronic speedometer
Transistorized gauge to output a electrical
signal through magnetic dial or a LED display
Transducer for Force Measurement
load cell – Converts Force or Load into electrical signal

The stress is applied along

the direction of S (shown
by the arrow), the steel
bar (active element)
experiences a compression
along that axis and an
expansion along the X and
Y axes. As a result, gauge A
experiences a decrease
in resistance, while gauge
B undergoes an increase in
resistance.
Used to measure weight of heavy loads like trucks.
When these two gauges and the gauges on the two
remaining sides of the steel are connected to form a
bridge circuit, four times the sensitivity of a
simple gauge bridge is obtained. This makes
the load cell sensitive to very small values of applied
stress, as well as to extremely heavy loads.
Transducer for Pressure Measurement
 Piezoelectric Crystal Application
Measure Force,
Acceleration
and mechanical
deformation
Piezoelectric elements are also
used in the detection and
generation of sonar waves.
 Piezoelectric Crystal
Force that stretches or compresses
act on it, an electrical charge is
produced on one of its surface and an
opposite charge is also induced on it.
Piezoelectric
materials
Quartz, Barium
Titanate, Rochelle
salt
 Advantages
• Self generating no external
power required
• High variable impedance 10kΩ
for 100 kHz
• High frequency Measurement
• Output voltage α force applied
Capacitive Transducers:
(i) Parallel separated metallic plates
(ii) Dielectric filling

Where,
ε0 represents the permittivity
of free space
εr represents the relative
permittivity or dielectric
constant
d represents the distance of
the parallel plates and A
represents the area of the
plates.
 Capacitive Tactile Sensor
A piezoelectric material Quartz
or Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
ionic in nature is used.

PVDF offer good

mechanical
strength for
thickness of
5µm to 2mm
Capacitive Touch Sensor
Light Sensor / Optical Transducers
A photovoltaic transducer
converts light energy into
electricity directly at the atomic
level. Materials that exhibit this
property are known as
photoelectric materials, and the
effect is called photoelectric effect.
 Photo Resistive Transducer
The resistance of the photo
resistive material decreases
with increase in light intensity
like potentiometric transducer.

Light Dependent Resistors

 Application
• Control of Street Light,
camera light, security alarm,
heater, outdoor clocks,
picture scanning, etc.
• ORP12
 Photodiode
The incident light energy excites
hole –electron pair of the photo
diode allows to flow current in
reverse biased mode .
𝐼 𝐿= 𝐼 𝑠
[ ( ) ]
exp
𝑞𝑒 𝑣 𝑑
𝑘𝑏 𝑇
−1 −
𝑛 𝑞𝑒 𝑃
h𝑓
=Load current output photocurrent
= reverse saturation current produced by electron-
hole pair,
= Diode applied voltage
=Boltzman constant
T=Absolute temperature
h=Planks constant
=charge of electron
P= Incident optical beam power
 Photo Transistor
It consists of a light-sensitive CB
junction, when base is exposed to
light energy , base current flows
proportional to light intensity.
 Application
• Opto-isolator or Opto-couplers
• Optical Switches
• Retro sensors
Computer components – Floppy disc,
printer margin control
Industries – security system, light pen,
encoders for speed measurements
Consumers – audio-video games,
remote controlled toys, etc.
Transducer for Temperature Measurement
 Change in temperature causes
shape change in Bimetallic strip
type transducer and change in
potential difference in the
thermocouple type .

Bimetallic Strip – Thermal expansion

Thermocouple – Seebeck effect
Bimetallic Strip Sensor
(1+ T), is linear thermal expansion coefficient

Bimetallic Strip Sensor

• Consists of two strips of different
metals with different temperature
expansion coefficients
• Usually made with steel
(coefficient of thermal expansion -
12 x 10 K ) and copper ( 16.6 x
-6 -1

10 K ) (or brass 18.7 x 10 K )

-6 -1 -6 -1

joined together (often welded)

throughout the length
 Thermocouples
• Temperature Measurement
• Seebeck effect
Change in temperature α induced
emf linearly

)
Where,
constant V/K
are junction temperature
 1 2 1 3
𝑒𝑚𝑓 = 𝐴𝑇 + 𝐵𝑇 + 𝐶 𝑇
2 2
=
 RTDs

Resistance of metals increases

with temperature.
= (1+ t)
Resistive element as coil.
Response time 0.5 to 5s or more.
 Thermistors
• Mixture of metal oxides
Chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel –
oxides are semiconductors
• Resistance decreases in a
non-linear manner with
increases in temperature.

• Rugged, small and point

detection
•
 PTC
NTC
thermistors
thermistors
are used as
are widely
self-resetting
used as
overcurrent
inrush-
protectors
current
and self-
limiters and
regulating
temperature
heating
sensors
elements.
Transducer for liquid level Measurement
 Liquid Level Measurement Floats
• Direct Method – Floats
• Indirect Method – Measuring the weight (load cell)
Leaver arm Slider 𝐴 h𝜌 𝑔

Float

• Leaver cause LVDT to displace / stretch or

compress strain gauge
 Liquid Level Measurement
Differential pressure
(a) Pressure difference between
liquid at the base of vessel
and atmospheric pressure
(open vessel)
(b) Differential pressure cell
Pressure difference between
liquid at the base of vessel
and the air/gas above the
surface of liquid
• Linearity – i/p – o/p linear
• Sensitivity – high change in o/p
• Wide Range – o/p is linear over
wide range Selection of Sensors
• Accuracy – no change with age
• Physical Size – small size
• Cost - low cost
• Reliability – without failure
THANKS