Chapter One

Introduction
Data: a collection of raw and unorganized facts or individual facts
include:- prices, weights, addresses, ages, names, temperatures, dates,
or distances.
Data can be simple—and may even seem useless until it is analyzed,
organized, and interpreted.
Information: processed data in a form that is meaningful to the user.
information is the result of analyzing and interpreting pieces of data.
Information System is a system that:
Receives data and instruction.
Processes the data as per the instruction.
Produces output.
Stores data/information for future use.
Database System 1
 Introduction to Database
Traditional way of data/information handling where cards and paper
are used for the purpose. Typing the data on paper and put in a file
cabinet. The data storage and retrieval will be performed using human
labour

Database System 2
 Con’t..

Limitations Traditional Database :

Prone to error
Data loss
Redundancy
Inconsistency
Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
difficult to compile the information
Limited to small size information
Cross referencing is difficult
Database System 3
 Database

Is a collection of related data in an organized way.

Is logically related data where these logically
related data includes: entities, attributes,
relationships, and business rules of an
organization's information.

Also contains a description of the data which called

as “Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems
Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.

E.g. book database

Database System 4
 Database

Databases and database technology are having a major impact on the

growing use of computers.

Play a critical role in almost all areas where computers are used,
including Business, Engineering, Medicine, Law, Education, And
Library Science, Etc.

Designed once and used simultaneously by many users.

Database System 5
 Database

The advantages of a database approach over the traditional and paper-based

methods of record keeping will:-
 Compactness: no need for possibly voluminous paper files.
 Speed: can retrieve and change data faster than a human can.
 Accuracy: timely, accurate, and up-to-date information is available at
any time
 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use the same data
instead of storing data in a redundant manner for each user.
 Easy recovery: Since database systems keep the
backup of data, it is easier to do a full recovery of
data in case of a failure.
 Flexible: Database systems are more flexible
than file-processing systems
Database System 6
 Cont..

 Controlling Data Redundancy: In non-database systems

(traditional computer file processing), each application

program has its own files. In this case, the duplicated copies
of the same data are created at many places but, in database
system, the data is recorded at only one place in the database
and it is not duplicated
 Integrity can be maintained: The problem of integrity is the problem of ensuring the

data in the database is accurate

 Security restrictions can be applied: Different rules can be established for each type of

access (retrieve, insert, delete, etc.) to each of information to the database.

 Privacy: Limited access means the privacy of data
Database System 7
 Con’t..

Limitations and risk of Database

Complexity in designing and managing data

The cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
is high.

High cost to be incurred to develop and maintain the system

Complex backup and recovery services from the users perspective

Reduced performance due to centralization and data independency

High impact on the system when failure occurs to the central

system.
Database System 8
 Database Systems
A computerized record keeping system. Users of the database can perform
a variety of operations. Such as:

Retrieving data from existing file

Adding new data to existing file

Adding new data to empty file

Receives data and instruction

Modifying data to existing file

Deleting data from existing file

Searching for target information

Database System 9
 component of database system

A database system involves four major components:

Hardware :consists of secondary storage media.
Data :The actual data stored in the database system may be stored as a
single database or distributed in many distinct files and treated as one.
Software :DBMS is responsible for the overall management of
communications between the user and the database
User and designer of database:there are group of roles played by
different stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database
system.

Database System 10
 Con’t..

Database Administrator (DBA)

Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources
(the database itself, the DBMS and other related software)
Authorizing access to the database
Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software
resources
Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of
the system
Involves in all steps of database development

Database System 11
Database Management System(DBMS)
Is a collection of programs that enables users to create and
maintain a database.

Example: Ms Access, SQL Server, My SQL, Oracle

etc.

Is general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of

Defining database

Constructing database

Manipulating databases for various applications

Defining a database: involves specifying the data types,

Database
structures, and constraints System
for the 12
data to be stored in the database.
 Con’t…

Constructing the database: is the process of storing the data

itself on some storage medium that is controlled by the

DBMS.

Manipulating a database: to retrieve specific data, updating

the database to reflect changes in the mini world, and

generating reports from the data.

Sharing: allows multiple users to access data.

Database System 13
 Components of DBMS Environment

A DBMS is software package used to design, manage, and

maintain databases.

It facilities to define the database, manipulate the content of the

database and control the database.

These facilities will help the designer, the user as well as the

database administrator to discharge their responsibility in

designing, using and managing the database.

It provides the following facilities:

Database System 14
 Con’t…

Data Definition Language (DDL):

A Language used to define each data element

required by the organization.

Used to setup a database to create, drop, rename

and alter table with the facility of handling

constraints
Database System 15
 Con’t…

Data Manipulation Language (DML):

Is a core command used by end-users and programmers to insert,

delete, and update the data in the database.

Provides basic data manipulation operations on data held in the

database.

Language for manipulating the data organized by the appropriate

data model

Database System 16
 Con’t…

Data Query Language (DQL):

Language for accessing or retrieving the data organized by the

appropriate data model

Since the required data or Query by the user will be extracted using

this type of language, it is also called "Query Language “ model

Procedural DQL: user specifies what data is required and how

to get the data.

Non-Procedural DQL: user specifies what data is required but

not how it is to be Database

retrieved System 17
 Con’t…

Data Control Language (DCL):

The database administrator should have the facility to control the
overall operation of the system.

The commands include grant or revoke privileges to access the

database or particular object within the database and to store or
remove database transactions

Database System 18
 Types Of Database Model
A model is a representation of real world objects and events and their
associations. Data model can be divided into four:
Hierarchical database model: Consists of an ordered set of
trees in a parent child mode.
Connection between child and its parent is called a Link.
1-1 or 1-M link is allowed.
It is inflexible
Used widely in applications like bank, tecom etc.
Easy to understood
Top down ways of viewing business entity
Allows a node to have only one parent.

Database System 19
 Con’t..
Network model: is the extension of the hierarchical structure
because it allows many-to-many relationships to be managed in a

tree-like structure that allows multiple parents.

Records data in a database as a collection of records, but unlike in

the case of hierarchical model, here a node can have any number

of parents.

Linked records are called set.

Object-oriented Database Model: information is represented in the

form of objects as used in object-oriented programming.

Database System 20
 Con’t..

Relational model: It is stored along with its

entities. A table has two properties rows and columns.

Rows represent records and columns represent

attributes.

 Most current DBMS technologies use relational

model

Database System 21
 Stages of data model

Conceptual model: it provides the concept.

Student Course

 It is highly abstract.

 Easily understood

Take_Cour
 Only entities are visible se

 Abstract R/ship

 No software tool is required

Database System 21
 Cont..

Logical data model: it expands the conceptual data model

Student Course
by adding more details. Id C_code
Nmae C_name
 Presence of all possible Age C_title
Sex

attributes for each entities.

Take_Cour
se
 Key and non key attributes
Id (FK)
Ccode (FK)
 Pk-Fk R/ships

 More detail than conceptual

 Software tool is required like vision and Edraw MAX

Database System 21
 Cont..
Physical model: looks like logical model however there are significant
changes . Student Course
Id char(10) C_code
 Entities referred to as tables Nmae char(10)
char(20) C_name
Age int char(20)
 Attributes referred to as
Sex char(5) C_title
char(50)
columns.
Take_Cour
 Database compatible table name se
Id char(10)
 Database compatible columns C_code char(10)

 Database specific data types

 Difficult for user to understands

 Will includes indexes, constraints, triggers and other DB objects.

Database System 21
 Steps of Database Design
Information Systems Design in general involves three steps

Requirements analysis – specifies what the system is required to do

based on user input.

Design – specifies how the system will address the requirements.

Implementation – translates design specifications into a working

system.

Database System 22
 Steps In Requirements Analysis for Database
Identify scope of the design effort.
Establish metadata collection standards - who to interview, what to
collect - how to structure interview.
Identify user views – extracted by reviewing user tasks, types of
decisions. Forms, reports, graphs, maps can be useful information
for defining views. User view- subset of data used by a user in a
specific context
Build a data dictionary - define and describe each item in detail:
name, description, type, length, range and relationships
Identify data volumes and usage patterns how much data is used
and how frequently is data change.
Identify operational (functional) requirements..

Database System 23
 Con’t..

Design of a database involves three types of

designing steps:
Conceptual Design: Synthesis of information
from requirements analysis according to
semantic rules. Outcome is a conceptual model.
The conceptual model describes entities,
attributes and relations among entities
independent of implementation details.
Logical Design: Transforms the conceptual data
model into an internal model - schema that can
be processed by a particular DBMS. For example
E/R model to relational model mapping.
Database System 24
 Con’t..

Physical Design: Involves design of internal storage

structures, record formats, access methods, record
blocking and soon.

Database System 25
 Individual Assignment One (5%)

Discuss database system architectures and their different

types of tier architecture with block diagram.
Explain the steps of database design with a block diagram.

Database System
 Chapter two
Conceptual level data design: Refers to the Entity-Relationship (E/R) Data Model.

Entity - Relationship (E/R) : Views the real world as a set of basic objects (entities)
and relationships among these objects.

It represents the overall logical structure of the database

The three basic notions of the E/R model are:

Entity: defined as tables that hold specific information (data). It

represents existing real-world objects or concepts, such as places, objects, events,
persons, orders, customers, and so on. (A Thing or an Object in Real World)

An object with physical existence (e.g., a lecturer, a student, a car)

An object with conceptual existence (e.g., a course, a job, a position)

Database System 2-1

 Cont..
Relationship: defined as the associations or interactions between
entities, such as the fact that students may take a course.

Database System 2-2

 Entity set
An entity set is a set consisting of the same type of entities that share the
same properties.

Eg “EMPLOYEES”(EMPLOYEE1, EMPLOYEE2,
EMPLOYEE3,etc ) entity set represents all the set of
employees

Entities are classified as independent (Strong) or

dependent (Weak).
A strong (independent) entity is an entity set with a
key called a strong entity set.
A weak (dependent) entity: an entity set w/c does
not have key attributes is called a weak entity.
Database System 2-3
 Cont..
Using key attributes you can identify uniquely the dependent entity but, by itself can
not be identified.
Partial key:- unique identifier of the weak entity that can be used to
distinguish from other weak entities related to the same owner
entity. means discriminatory attributes.
D_na
EmpId Name Salary
me

DEPENDAN
EMPLOYEE
T

Addre
Salary
ss

Database System 2-4

 Types of attributes
Are descriptive properties that are associated with an entity. A set of
attributes describe an entity.

A particular instance of an attribute is called a value. For example,

“Employee Id” and “Name” are the attributes of the
“EMPLOYEES” entity set; and “XYZ” is one value of the attribute
“Name”.

Attributes can be classified as:

Identifiers or

Descriptors.

Database System 2-5

 Cont..
Identifiers: more commonly called keys, uniquely identify an instance
of an entity.
Example: “Employee Id” uniquely identifies an employee entity
from the entity set.
Descriptor: describes a non-unique characteristic of an entity instance.
Example: “Name” is a descriptor for the “EMPLOYEES” entity set
Another way of categorizing Attributes is as Simple and Composite
attributes.
Simple Attributes: these are attributes also known as Atomic
Attributes that can not be divided into subparts.
Example: “Age” and “Gender” of the “EMPLOYEES” entity set.

Database System 2-6

 Cont..
 Composite Attributes: these are attributes that are
composed of smaller subparts that can be subdivided into
subparts (Attributes). Or can be divided into further
parts.

Database System 2-7

 Cont..
Another classification of attributes is based on the values that they can
hold as:
Single-valued and
Multi-valued attributes.
Single-valued Attributes: are attributes having only one possible value
at any time.
 Example: “Name” and “Gender” of the “EMPLOYEES” entity set.
Multi-valued Attributes: are attributes that are having possibly more
than one value.
 Example: college degree, and language known are multivalued
attributes of a person.

Database System 2-8

 Cont..
Attributes can also be categorized as Stored and Derived attributes.

Derived Attributes: are attributes that can be calculated from the

related stored attributes, entities, or general states.

Stored Attributes: these are attributes that can not be calculated in

any way from the stored attributes.
 Example: “Birth Date” of the “EMPLOYEES” entity set is a stored

attribute, whereas “Age” is a derived attribute that can be calculated

from the “Birth Date” and “Current Date”.

Database System 2-9

 Cont..
Complex Attributes: For an entity, if an attribute is made
using multi-valued attributes and composite attributes then it
is known as a complex attribute.

Example:- {college degree(college, year, degree,

field)}, {Address(kebele, email, phone)}, etc.

Relationship attributes: attributes may be used in some

r/ships to describe the r/ship further.

Database System 2-10

 Relationship
A Relationship represents an association between two or more entities.
An example of a relationship would be:
 “EMPLOYEES” Assigned “TEAMS”

 “CUSTOMERS” Owns “PROJECTS”

 “TEAMS” works on “PROJECTS”

Relationships are classified in terms of degree, connectivity,
cardinality, and existence.
Degree: of a relationship is the number of entities associated with
the relationship. The multi-way relationship is the general form for
degree n. Special cases are the unary, binary, and ternary, where the
degree is 1, 2, and 3, respectively
Database System 2-11
 Cont..
Connectivity: The connectivity of a relationship describes the
mapping of associated entity instances in the relationship. The values
of connectivity are “one” or “many”.

Cardinality: The cardinality of a relationship is the actual number

of related occurrences for each of the two entities.

The basic types of connectivity for relations are one-to-one,

one-to-many, many-to-one and many-to-Many.

Database System 2-12

 Cont..
Existence: The existence of an entity in a relationship is defined as
either mandatory or optional.?
Connectivity
Eg TEACHER CLASS
1,1
1, M
Cardinality

Database System 2-13

 Participation in relationships
Total Participation: Every department managed by at least one
employee .

Eg EMPLOYEE
Mang DEPARTMENT
es

Partial Participation Total Participation

Partial Participation: Not every employee manages a department

Database System 2-14

 Design principle
E/R Diagram: is a diagrammatical data model. The element
of E/R model are represented by:
 Rectangle- for the entity set

 Ellipse- for the attributes

 Diamonds- for r/ships

 Line- for the link b/n the attributes & the entity sets and

b/n the entity sets and r/ships

Database System 2-15

 Cont..
 Double Border Rectangle- for the weak entity sets

 Double Border Ellipse- for the multi-valued attributes

 Double Border Diamonds- for the weak r/ships

 Dashed Border Ellipses- for the derived attributes

 Arrow Head Line- for the link b/n an entity set & a one-

to-one r/ship

Database System 2-16

 Summery

Database System 2-17

 Types of keys
Keys – are attributes or sets of attributes that can be used to uniquely
identify an entity within the entity set.

Why do we need a Key?

Keys help you to identify any row of data in a table.

Allows you to establish a relationship between and identify the

relation between tables.
Help you to enforce identity and integrity in the relationship.

Database System 2-18

 Cont..

A super key (super set) is a group of single or multiple keys

which identifies rows in a table. A Super key may have additional
attributes that are not needed for unique identification.

StudID is sk/key, {dept, course} is sk, {name, mark} is not sk,

{name, dept, mark, course} is sk.

Is {name, mark, dept} is sk???
Sk is a theoretical concept. You can not implement any database

Database System 2-19

 Cont..

Based on the above table find all sets of super keys.

Candidate Key: A super key with no repeated attribute is called a

candidate key. It is a minimal set of super keys without repetition. A
super key with no redundant attributes.

Database System 2-20

 Cont..
The Primary key should be selected from the candidate keys.

Every table must have at least a single candidate key.

Properties of Candidate key:

It must contain unique values

Candidate key may have multiple attributes

Must not contain null values

Uniquely identify each record in a table

Database System 2-21

 Cont..

The candidate key of the above tables is:-{StudID, (dept, course)}

Find the candidate key of the employee relation.

Database System 2-22

 Cont..
Primary Key: A column or group of columns in a table which
helps us to uniquely identifies every row in that table is called a
primary key. The same value can't appear more than once in the table.

Rules for defining Primary key:

Two rows can't have the same primary key value

It must for every row to have a primary key value.

The primary key field cannot be null.

The value in a primary key column can never be modified or

updated if any foreign key refers to that primary key.

Database System 2-23

 Cont..

Alternate key: All the keys which are not primary keys are called
alternate keys.

It is a candidate key which is currently not the primary key. However,

A table may have single or multiple choices for the primary key.
 Example: StudID is a primary key. But since StudID is the primary
key (dept, course) becomes the alternative key.

Database System 2-24

 Cont..
Example: In the table below, Stud ID, Roll No, and email are
candidate keys that help us uniquely identify the student record in the
table.

Database System 2-25

 Cont..
Foreign Key A foreign key is a column that is added to create a
relationship with another table.
Used to relate one table/relation with another table/relation.
Foreign keys help us to maintain data integrity and also allow
navigation between two different instances of an entity.
Can take only those values w/c are present in the primary key of the
referenced relations or tables.
There is no restriction on a foreign key to being unique. In fact, fk is
not unique most of the time.

This concept is also known as Referential Integrity.

Database System 2-26

 Cont..
Composite key: A key that has multiple attributes to uniquely identify
rows in a table is called a composite key.
But the attributes w/c together form the composite key are not a key
independently or individually. Eg. (dept, course)

A Unique key:- refers to a column/a set of columns that identify every

record uniquely in a table.
Unique key is different from a primary key. It is because it is only
capable of having null value. A primary key, on the other hand, cannot
have a null value.

Database System 2-27

 Transform ERD to schema
An ER model is a design or blueprint of a database that can later be
implemented as a database.
The database schema is the structure of a database described in a
formal language supported by the DBMS

Database System 2-28

 Constraints

Constraints: The whole purpose of constraints is to maintain

the data integrity during an update/delete/insert into a table.

Types of constraints
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
DEFAULT
CHECK
Key Constraints – PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY
Mapping constraints
Domain constraints
Database System 2-29
 Cont..
NOT NULL: constraint makes sure that a column does not hold NULL
value. When we don’t provide value for a particular column while
inserting a record into a table, it takes NULL value by default.

UNIQUE: Enforces a column or set of columns to have unique values.

DEFAULT: Provides a default value to a column when there is no

value provided while inserting a record into a table.

Database System 2-30

 Cont..
CHECK: is used for specifying range of values for a particular
column of a table.

Key constraints:

Eg: CREATE TABLE STUDENT( ROLL_NO INT NOT NULL

CHECK(ROLL_NO >1000) , STU_NAME VARCHAR (35) NOT
NULL UNIQUE, STU_AGE INT NOT NULL, AGE INT DEFAULT
‘M’, STU_ADDRESS VARCHAR (35) , PRIMARY KEY
(ROLL_NO) );

Database System 2-31

 Mapping Constraints

Mapping Cardinality:

One to One: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with at

most one entity of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can be
associated with at most one entity of entity-set A.

One to Many: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with any

number of entities of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can
be associated with at most one entity of entity-set A.

Many to One: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with at

most one entity of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B can be
associated with any number of entities of entity-set A.
Database System 2-32
 Cont..
Many to Many: An entity of entity-set A can be associated with
any number of entities of entity-set B and an entity in entity-set B
can be associated with any number of entities of entity-set A.
Domain constraints: Each table has certain set of columns and
each column allows a same type of data, based on its data type. The
column does not accept values of any other data type.
Domain Constraint = data type + Constraints (NOT NULL /
UNIQUE / PRIMARY KEY / FOREIGN KEY / CHECK /
DEFAULT) used for data integrity.

Integrity means the set of rules and regulations to restrict the kind
of attributes or values a column or relation can hold in the database
table.

Database System 2-33

 Database Design Guidelines
What are the steps in designing a database.

Determine the purpose of your database.

Find and organize the required information.

Divide the information into tables.

Turn information items into columns.

Specify primary keys.

Set up the table relationships.

Refine your design.

Apply the normalization rules

Database System 2-34

 Individual Assignment Two (5 %)
Discuss the two most common sources of weak entity sets with an
example
Discuss entity set and entity type.
Explain the object definition language (ODL) data, and model.
How to design ODL? Discuss with example.

Find the maximum number of super keys and the total number of
super keys using the following student table.

Database System
 Chapter three
Relational database design:
Relational database design (RDD) use tables to store information.
The standard fields and records are represented as columns (fields/
attributes) and rows (records/ tuple) in a table.

The design of a relational database is composed of four stages,

where the data are modeled into a set of related tables. The stages
are:
Define relations/attributes
Define primary keys
Define relationships
Normalization

Database System 3-1

 Functional dependency in DBMS
The attributes of a table is said to be dependent on each other when an
attribute of a table uniquely identifies another attribute of the same
table.

For example: Suppose we have a student table with attributes:

Stu_Id, Stu_Name, and Stu_Age.

Here Stu_Id (Determinate) attribute uniquely identifies the

Stu_Name(Dependent) attribute of the student table because if we
know the student id we can tell the student name associated with it.

This is known as functional dependency and can be written as

Stu_Id->Stu_Name or, in other words, we can say Stu_Name is
functionally dependent on Stu_Id.
Database System 3-2
 Cont..
Normalization: is the process of minimizing redundancy from a
relation or set of relations.
 It ensures optimum structure .

 It ensures data atomic.

 It eliminates data inconsistencies and anomalies.

 It improves data integrity.

Anomalies in DBMS: There are three types of anomalies that occur

when the database is not normalized. These are – Insertion, update and
deletion anomaly.

Database System 3-3

 Cont..
Example: Suppose a library management system database stores
details of a table and it has six attributes:

The above table is not normalized. We will see the problems that we
face when a table is not normalized.

Database System 3-4

 Cont..
Update anomaly: In the above table we have two rows that have the
same value age for a table, If we want to update the age of mulu then
we have to update only one row.

Therefore the data will become inconsistent.

Database System 3-5

 Cont..
Insert anomaly: if we want to add five new records in to a database ,
then we would not be able to insert the data into the table if Roll_No
field doesn’t allow nulls.

Delete anomaly: Suppose, if at a point of time the manager closes the

Book_No B10 then deleting the rows that are having Book_No as
B10 would also delete the information of student Alex since he is
assigned only to the table .
To overcome these anomalies we need to normalize the data

Database System 3-6

 Cont..
First Normal Form: If a relation is in 1NF:
It should not contain multi-valued attributes.
every attribute should be singled valued attribute
It should be atomic .

Database System 3-7

 Cont..
Second normal form (2NF): A table is said to be in 2NF if the
following conditions hold:

Table is in 1NF (First normal form)

No partial dependency exist.

Proper Subset CK Non-prime
Attribute(PD)
♦ An attribute that is not part of any candidate key is known as

non-prime attribute.

IF R(X,Y,Z,N) and FD={XY,YZ} Find closure of R

♦ SkXN+ = {XYZN}

Database System 3-8

 Cont..
♦ SkXN then find closure of X and N to find CK.

♦ Using X+ = XYZ this not SK.

♦ Using N+ = N this is not SK. Therefore XN is CK of R.

♦ Now find out more about CK. No more CK b/c no prime

attribute from R.H.S of from FD.

♦ Now X and N are prime attributes and Y and Z are nonprime

attributes.
♦ Now XY is the creation of PD.

♦ Then find X+ = XYZ =>R1 and N+ = N=>R2.

Database System 3-9

 Cont..
♦ Then find X+ = XYZ =>R1 and N+ = N=>R2
♦ Therefore using X we can find all attributes of R1, so X is a SK
of R1. so both R1 & R2 are lossless join decomposition.
♦ Now find FD1 by taking the closure of X+ = XYZ, Y+ = YZ
and Z+ = Z
♦ Now FD1 = {XYZ, YZ} and FD2 = { }
♦ Therefore the Relation is in 2NF

If the CK is a single attribute that is absolutely the R in 2NF

If an R has two attributes & from that attributes one attribute is SK

of that R absolutely the R is in BCNF.

Example 2:- based on slide number 7 convert into 2NF( not in 2NF)

Database System 3-10

 Cont..

Conversion to 2NF

Database System 3-11

 Cont..
Third Normal form (3NF): A table is in 3NF:- if and only if for each
of its non-trivial FD at least one of the following conditions holds.
L.H.S is SK
R.H.S is prime attribute
In other words 3NF can be explained like this:
Table must be in 2NF
No transitive functional dependency from non-prime attributes
i.e XY, YZ then XZ if X & Z are non-prime attributes.

An attribute that is a part of one of the candidate keys is known as

prime attribute.
An attribute that is not a part of one of the candidate keys is known
as non-prime attribute.

Database System 3-12

 Cont..
Convert the following R from 2NF to 3NF: R(X,Y,Z,N) and
FD={XY, YZ, ZN}
XYZN+ = {XYZN}
SK X={XYZN}.
Find CK:- if a R has only one SK , that SK is CK of a relation R.
Therefore X is prime attribute.
Now find more CK. To find more CK check the R.H.S of FD
attribute is prime. If it is there, you will get more CK else not.
If a R has only one CK that R is absolutely in 2NF.
Now check a R is 3NF or not.
Prime attribute is X and Non-prime attribute are Y,Z and N.
Therefore to check a R is in 3NF or not , check a condition
NPANPA.

Database System 3-13

 Cont..
Y Z and Z N create a problem here. Why? b/c it hold NPA 
NPA. Therefore find the closure Y and Z
Y+ = {YZN} means R1(Y,Z,N), Z+ = {ZN} means R2(Z,N) and
R3(X,Y)
FD1 = {Y  ZN, Z  N} FD2 = {Z  N}
oY+ = YZN
oZ+ = ZN
oN+ = N
FD2 = {Z N}
oZ+ = ZN.
oN+ = N
FD3 = {X Y}
oX+ = XYZN
oY+ = YZN
Database System 3-14
 Cont..
Z N create a problem here. Why? b/c it hold NPA  NPA.
Therefore find the closure Z
Z+ = {ZN} means R11(Z,N) and R12(Y,Z)
FD11 = {Z  N}
oZ+ = ZN
oN+ = N
FD12 = {Y Z}
oY+ = YZN
oZ+ = ZN
based on slide number 11 convert into 3NF( not in 3NF)

Database System 3-15

 Cont..

Database System 3-16

 Cont..
Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF): is a stronger generalization of
third normal form.

A table is in Boyce-Codd Normal form if and only if at least one of

the following conditions are met for each functional dependency

A → B:

It should no non-trivial dependency(A trivial functional dependency

means that all columns of B are contained in the columns of A)

A is a super key
 NPA  PA (create a problme )

A relation is in BCNF if every determinant is a candidate key

Database System 3-17

 Cont..

Database System 3-18

 Individual Assignment Three(5%)
1. Explain the functionality of the database system.

2. What is the basic difference between multiplicity and participation?

3. What is ODL? Explain with a neat diagram and compare with ER.

4. Convert the following relation into the highest form

 R(x,y,z,n) & fd = {xy, zn}

R(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8) & FD = {1 24, 2 3, 5 67, 15 8}

Submission date 01/06/2015

Database System
Chapter four

Database System
 Relational algebra
Relational Algebra is a procedural query language that consists of a
set of operations that take one or two relations as input and produce a
new relation as a result. The algebra operations enable a user to
retrieve specific requests on a relational model

The sequence of the relational algebra that produces new relation

forms a relational algebra expression.

Relational algebra is very important for several reasons:

It provides a formal foundation for relational model operation.
It is used as the basis for implementing optimizing queries in
RDBMS.

It combined into the SQL for RDBMS.

Database System 4-1
 Cont..
Fundamental Operations of Relational Algebra : can be grouped into
two based on the number of relation operands of the operator. These
are:

Unary Operators .

Selection (σ)

Projection (Π)

Rename(ρ)

Database System 4-2

 Cont..

Binary Operators .

Product (Cartesian Product) (Χ)

Union (U )

Intersection (˄)

Difference ( – )

The binary operators listed above are also known as set operators.

Database System 4-3

 Cont..

Unary Operations:

Select Operation : selects a subset of tuple from a relation instance

that satisfies a selection condition.

Is picking certain rows (tuple) from a relation(R).

It is denoted by σ C(R), Where σ (sigma) is used to denote the

SELECT operator, C(=, <, >, ≠, ≤, ≥) is a Boolean expression of
the select condition, and R is the relation or relational algebra
expression.

Database System 4-4

 Cont..

Example - From the “EMPLOYEES” relation to extracting Senior

Managers or that salary is greater than 30,000 then the selection
operation can be written as:

Employees(EmpId, Name, BDate, Age, Gender, Position, Salary)

δ position=“senior Manager” ˅ salary>=30,000

OR

Database System 4-5

 Cont..

Project Operation: forms a new relation by picking certain columns in

the relation.

Also called duplicate elimination. It is denoted by: Π A ( R), Where Π

(pi) represents the PROJECT operator and A is a set of attributes in
the relation R.

Example - To extract Employees Name and Position only from the

“EMPLOYEES” relation

Database System 4-6

 Cont..

Rename Operation: The renaming operator can be used to explicitly

rename resulting relations of an expression within the query do not
think renaming permanently the relation.

It is denoted by: Where ρ(rho) represents the

RENAME operator and S is a name for the new relation and A1, A2,
… An are new names for the attributes in the relation R.

Can be useful in connection with more complex operations such as

unions and join

Eg: find out the maximum account balance in the bank.

Πaccount.bal(δaccount.bal <a.bal(account Χ ρa (account)))

Database System 4-7
 Cont..

If no renaming is applied, the name of the attribute in the resulting

relation of select operation are the same as those in the original and in
the same order relation

For projection operation with no renaming the resulting relation has

the same attribute names as those in the projection list and in the same
order which they appear in the list.

After the renaming the name of the relation and the attributes can be
used as ordinary relation and attributes in a sequence of relational
algebra expressions:

Database System 4-8

 Binary Operations
Cartesian Product Operation: also known as Cross Product or Cross
Join Product is a binary set operation that generates a new relation
from two relations in a combinatorial fashion.

It is denoted by RΧS, Where Χ represents the PRODUCT operator

and R and S are relations to be joined.

The product operation maps each tuple in relation to every tuple in

S.

Database System 4-9

 Cont..

Example - Consider the following relations R and S, then R ΧS is

given as shown to the right.

Database System 4-10

 Cont..

Consider the Employees, EmpTeams and Teams relation and develop

a relational algebra expression that retrieves the name and position of
Employees that work on Project 1 as Programmers and rename the
relation as Programmers1.

Employees(EmpId, Name, BDate, Age, Gender, Position, Salary)

EmpTeams(EmpId, TeamId)

Teams(TeamId, PrjId, Name, Descr)

Database System 4-11

 Cont..
Union Operation: The union operation on R and S denoted by R U S
results a relation that includes all tuples either in R or in S or in both.
Duplicates are eliminated from the result.

Intersection Operation: The intersection operation on R and S

denoted by R ˄ S results a relation that includes all tuples in both R
and S

Set Difference Operation: The result of the set difference operation on

R and S denoted by R−S is the set of elements in R but not in S.

Database System 4-12

 Cont..

For the set operations (Union, Intersection, product, Set difference)

the two relational operands R and S must have some type of tuples,
this condition is known as Union Compatibility.

Two relations R(A1, A2, … An) and S(B1, B2, … Bn) are said to be
union compatible if

They have the same degree n, and

Domain(Ai) = Domain(Bi) for all i = 1, 2, … n

Database System 4-13

 Cont.

Example - Consider the following relations R and S, then R US and

R – S are given as shown to the right.

Find the name and position of Employees that work on both Projects 1
and 2 as Programmers. It is Similar to the previous example.

Database System 4-14

 Additional Operations
Natural Join Operation: A frequent type of join connects two relations
by:

Equating attributes of the same name, and

Projecting out one copy of each pair of equated attributes.

Such a join is known as natural join and it is denoted by:

where represents the NATURAL JOIN operator and R and S are
relations to be joined

Natural join does not use any comparison operator.

Database System 4-15

 Cont..

Consider the following relations R and S, then R S is given as

shown to the right

Database System 4-16

 Cont..

The pervious example that retrieves the name and position of

Employees that work on Project 1 as Programmers from the
modified relations below can be simplified as:

Employees(EmpId, FullName, BDate, Age, Gender, Position,

Salary)

EmpTeams(EmpId, TeamId)

Teams(TeamId, PrjId, TName, Descr)

Write the relational expression based on the above information.

Database System 4-17

 Cont..

Theta Join Operation: While the natural join enforces a join condition
by equating similar attributes in the relations to be joined; a theta join
joins relations to an arbitrary condition C.

The notation for theta join is:

The result of the theta operation is constructed by:

Taking the product of R and S, and

Selecting only those tuples satisfying the condition C.

Database System 4-18

 Cont..

Consider the following relations R and S, then is given as

shown to the right.

Database System 4-19

 Extended Operation
The basic relational algebra operations have been extended in several
ways to enhance the expressive power of the original relational
algebra. Some of the extended operations are: -

Outer Join

Extended Projection

Duplicate Elimination

Aggregation and Grouping

Database System 4-20

 Cont..
Outer Join Operation: The natural join operation

result in a tuple when there is a match to the common attributes of the

tuples in the relations R and S. Such joins are known as inner join
operations.

However, there are cases when we want to have all the tuples from the
participating relations and form the join when there is much. In such
cases, outer join operations can be used to keep all the tuples in R, or
all those in S, or all those in both relations irrespective of their having
matching tuples in their common attributes.

Database System 4-21

 Cont..
The three types of outer join operators are

Left Outer Join: Keeps every tuples in the left relation R and when
there is no matching for tuples in R from tuples in S, the attributes
of S are filled (padded) with NULL values.

It is denoted by:

Database System 4-22

 Cont..
Right Outer Join: Similar to the left outer join operation it keeps all
tuples in the right relation S and when there is no matching for
tuples in S from tuples in R, the attributes of R are padded with
NULL values,

It is denoted by:

Database System 4-23

 Cont..
Full Outer Join: Keeps all tuples in both the left and right relations
when no matching tuples are found, padding them with NULL
values as needed

It is denoted by:

Database System 4-24

 Cont..
Aggregation and Grouping Operation: Aggregation functions
(operators) such as SUM, COUNT, MIN, MAX, and AVG are
collection operators that return a single value as a result.

Aggregation operators are not relational algebra operators but they

are used by the grouping operator (γ) that groups tuples according to
their values in one or more attributes.

It is denoted by: Where L is either the list of grouping

attributes in order or list of aggregation functions applied to the
attributes of the relation R

Database System 4-25

 Cont..

Example - Write a relational algebra that determines the number of

teams all the employees are working in.

Database System 4-26

 Introduction to Relational Calculus
A relational calculus is a declarative and nonprocedural expression
that specifies a retrieval request, and hence there is no description of
how to evaluate the query in a relational calculus. Rather, a
relational calculus expression specifies what is to be retrieved.

Relational calculus is not the same as that of differential and integral

calculus in mathematics but takes its name from a branch of
symbolic logic termed predicate calculus.

A relational calculus is classified into two as

Tuple Relational Calculus, and

Domain Relational Calculus

Database System 4-27
 Cont..
The Tuple Relational Calculus : A query in a tuple relational calculus
(tuple calculus) is expressed as: { t/p(t) } Where t. is a tuple variable
and p(t) a predicate (condition) that is to be true for the tuple t.

P(t) may have various conditions logically combined with OR (∨),

AND (∧), NOT(¬). It also uses quantifiers:

∃ t ∈ r (Q(t)) = ”there exists” a tuple in t in relation r such that

predicate Q(t) is true.

∀ t ∈ r (Q(t)) = Q(t) is true “for all” tuples in relation r.

Database System 4-28

 Cont..

EXAMPLE: Find the loan number, branch, amount of loans of greater

than or equal to 10,000 amount
Database System 4-29
 Cont..
SOLUTION
{t| t ∈ loan ∧ t[amount]>=10,000}

Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater or equal to
10,000.

{t| ∃ s ∈ loan(t[loan number] = s[loan number] ∧

s[amount]>=10000)

Find the names of all customers having a loan at the “ABC” branch.

{t | ∃ s ∈ borrower( t[customer-name] = s[customer-

name]) ∧ ∃ u ∈ depositor(
Databaset[customer-name]
System = 4-30
 Cont..
The Domain Relational Calculus: A query in a domain relational
calculus (domain calculus) uses domain variables that take on values
from an attributes domain rather than values for an entire tuple.

It is expressed as Where tx1,x2…..xn

represent domain variables and P is the predicate as in the case of
tuple calculus.

Formulas in the predicate are build in the same ways as the tuple
calculus predicates.

Database System 4-31

 Cont..
Example - Retrieve name and description of all the teams working on
project named “banking db”.

Projects(PrjId, PName, SDate, DDate, CDate)

Teams(TeamId, PrjId, TName, Descr calculus predicates

Database System 4-32

Chapter five

Database System
 Structured query language(SQL)
What is SQL? SQL stands for Structured Query Language

SQL became a standard of the American National Standards

Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1987

SQL is a Standard , Although SQL is an ANSI/ISO standard, there

are different versions of the SQL language (SQL-86.,SQL-89.,SQL-
92.,SQL:1999., SQL:2003., SQL:2006., SQL:2008.,SQL:2011, SQL:2011). However, to be
compliant with the ANSI standard, they all support at least the
major commands (such as SELECT, UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT,
WHERE) in a similar manner.
Database System 5-1
 Structured query language(SQL)
What Can SQL do?

Can retrieve, insert, update, delete record from a database

Can create new databases

Can create new tables in a database

Can create stored procedures in a database

Can create views in a database

Can set permissions on tables, procedures, and views

Database System 5-2

 SQL Data Definition Language (DDL)
DDL is a set of SQL commands used to create, modify, and delete
database structures but not data. The most important DDL statements
in SQL are:
CREATE: This command is used to create the database or its
objects (like table, index, views, store procedure, and triggers).
ALTER TABLE - alters (changes) a database table.
DROP: This command is used to delete objects from the database
(LIKE table, index, column etc.).
TRUNCATE: This is used to remove all records from a table,
COMMENT: This is used to add comments to the data dictionary.
RENAME: This is used to rename an object existing in the
database.

Database System 5-3

 SQL Data Manipulation Language (DML)
The Data Manipulation Language (DML) is part of the SQL syntax
for executing queries to insert, retrieve, update, and delete records.
The statements are;

INSERT INTO - inserts new data into a database table.

SELECT - extracts data from a database table.

UPDATE - updates data in a database table.

DELETE - deletes data from a database table.

LOCK: Table control concurrency

Database System 5-4

 Schema Definition in SQL
The term "schema" refers to the organization of data as a blueprint of
how the database is constructed (divided into database tables in the
case of relational databases). Schemas are like folders within
a database but database is a container.

SQL uses the following terms for the corresponding terms in

relational model

Table – Relation

Column – Attribute

Row – Tuple

Database System 5-5

 Schema Creation and Modification
L in the SQL statement is used to
The CREATE SCHEMA command
group database objects such as tables, views and permissions.

The syntax for the command is: CREATE SCHEMA <schema_name>

AUTHORIZATION <owner>

<schema_name> is the name of the schema

<owner> identifies the user who is the owner of the schema.

Example: - CREATE SCHEMA schema AUTHORIZATION

user

Database System 5-6

 Cont..
CREATE SCHEMA command groups database objects and the
CREATE DATABASE command in the SQL statement is used to
create a new database and the corresponding files for storing the
database.

The syntax for the command is:

 CREATE DATABASE <database_name>

Example: - CREATE DATABASE DMU

Database System 5-7

 Table Creation and Modification
The CREATE TABLE command in the SQL statement is used to
specify a new relation in a database by giving it a name and listing its
attributes.

The syntax: CREATE TABLE table_name ( column_name1 data_type

column_constraint, column_name2 data_type column_constraint……
column_nameN data_type column_constraint)

Datatypes:- is the SQL supported data types: char, varchar, int, small
int, decimal, date, time(date time),……

Database System 5-8

 Cont..
Example: For the PROJECTS and TEAMS relations the
corresponding tables can be defined as: -

CREATE TABLE Projects ( PrjId INT NOT NULL PRIMARY

KEY, Name VARCHAR(30) NOT NULL, SDate DATE NOT
NULL, DDate DATE NULL, CDate DATE NULL)

CREATE TABLE Teams ( PrjId INT NOT NULL FOREIGN KEY

REFERENCES Projects(PrjId), Name VARCHAR(30) NOT
NULL, Description VARCHAR(100) NULL, PRIMARY KEY
(PrjId, Name) ), …

Database System 5-9

 Cont..
The primary key constraint in a relation is enforced by using the key
word PRIMARY KEY following the key attribute or incase of
multiple attributes it can be specified on a separate line.

The referential integrity constraint in a relational database is

implemented by the use of a foreign key. If the referential integrity
enforced using a FOREIGN KEY is violated the default SQL
statement forces the rejection of the violating tuple. However, by the
use of the optional referential trigged actions the designer can attach
clauses to the foreign key constraint such as:

Database System 5-10

 Cont..
Cascading referential integrity constraints are foreign key constraints
that tell SQL Server to perform certain actions when a primary key
field in a primary key-foreign key relationship is updated or deleted

Example: create table parent ( pid int not null primary key ,Pname
char(20) not null, age int )

create table child ( cid int not null primary key, pid int foreign key
references parent(pid) on delete cascade on update cascade

Database System 5-11

 Cont..
SQL ALTER TABLE Statement:
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify
columns in an existing table.
The ALTER TABLE statement is also used to add and drop various
constraints on an existing table.
Syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
syntax: ALTER TABLE table_name drop column column_name;
To change the data type of a column in a table, syntax:
LTER TABLE table_name ALTER COLUMN column_name
datatype;
ALTER TABLE Persons ADD PRIMARY KEY (ID);
ALTER TABLE OrdersADD FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFEREN
CES Persons(PersonID);

Database System 5-12

 Index creation and modification
Indexes are the heart of fast data access. Data access can be fast
without indexes, but only if the table is small.

If the table contains thousands or millions of rows, data access has to

be done through indexes. Indices in a book, helps to find information
about a specific subject without having to read the entire book.

The same applies to a database index; it helps to find information

about a specific row or rows without having to search through the
entire table..

Database System 5-13

 Cont..
An index for a table is managed by an external table which consists of
the search key (index attribute) and a pointer to the location of the
data as columns.

Creating indexes is a straight forward process when done with the

CREATE INDEX statements.

The basic CREATE INDEX statement is:

CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
 CREATE INDEX idx_lastname ON Persons (LastName);

Database System 5-14

 Simple Query Constructs and Syntax
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.

The data returned is stored in a result table, called the result-set.

 SELECT Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;

Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table you want
to select data from.

If you want to select all the fields available in the table, use the
following syntax: Select * from table_Name

Database System 5-15

 Cont..
SELECT <column_list> FROM <table_list> WHERE <condition>

<column_list> is the list of column names whose values are retrieved

by the query.

<table_list> is the list of table names required in the process.

<condition> is Boolean expression (conditional expression) that

determines the rows to be selected in the query.

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE

keyword could not be used with aggregate functions.

Eg:
SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_nameWHERE condi
Database System 5-16
 Cont..
The WHERE clause it is a search condition used to filter records.

The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a
specified condition.

Syntax: SELECT column1, column2, ... FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

The WHERE clause is not only used in SELECT statement, it is

also used in UPDATE, DELETE statement, etc.
 Syntax: UPDATE table_name

SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2, ...

WHERE condition;
Database System 5-17
 Cont..
In SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a table, a
temporary name.

Aliases are often used to make column names more readable and to
avoid ambiguity .

An alias only exists for the duration of the query.

SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name AS alias_name;
 Example: SELECT CustomerID AS ID,
CustomerName AS Customer
FROM Customers;
Database System 5-18
 Cont..
The SELECT DISTINCT: statement is used to return only distinct
(different) values.

Inside a table, a column often contains many duplicate values; and

sometimes you only want to list the different (distinct) values.

To remove duplicates and have a set of rows as a result one can the
DISTINCT key word on the SELECT clause as follows

SELECT DISTINCT <column_list> FROM <table_list>

WHERE <condition>

Database System 5-19

 Cont..
Example: A query to retrieve employees name, the projects they are
participating and due date of the project.

SELECT DISTINCT e.Name, p.Name, p.DDate FROM Employees

AS e, EmpTeams AS et, Teams AS t, Projects AS p WHERE
e.EmpId=et.EmpId AND et.TeamId=t.TeamId AND p.PrjId=t.PrjId

If the SELECT is not DISTINCT the resulting table (view) will

include identical set of rows for an employee participating in different
teams for same project.

Database System 5-20

 Cont..
The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a
specified pattern in a column.

There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE
operator:
% The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters
_ The underscore represents a single character

Database System 5-21

 Cont..
Example: A query to retrieve employees with a name starting by the
letter ‘A’.
SELECT * FROM Employees WHERE Name=’A%’
SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have
"r" in the second position:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';
SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that starts
with "a" and are at least 3 characters in length:
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a__%';

Database System 5-22

 Nested Sub queries and Complex Queries
The SELECT-FROM-WHERE statement discussed so far is the
simplest SQL statement for querying a database. SQL SELECT
statements can be combined together to form Sub queries.

Sub queries in a SQL statement are complete form of SELECT-

FROM-WHERE statements that are contained in one query.

They can be used in different ways:

Sub queries in the WHERE clause to form nested queries, Sub

queries in set operations such as UNION, EXCEPT, …, and

Sub queries in the FROM clause as constant tables.

Database System 5-23

 Cont..
SQL SELECT statements can be contained in the WHERE clause of
another SQL statement to form Nested queries. Sub queries in a
nested SQL statement can produce scalar value (constant) or table.

Considering the following relations,

Employees(EmpId, Name, BDate, SubCity, Kebele, Phone, Salary)

Teams(TeamId, PrjId, Name, Descr) - EmpTeams(EmpId, TeamId)

Projects(PrjId, Name, SDate, DDate, CDate, CustId)

Customers(CustId, Name, Address)

Database System 5-24

 Cont..
Example: write a query to retrieve all the projects that are owned by
the customer ‘XYZ’. (Assume name of a customer is unique)

SELECT Name, SDate, DDate, CDate FROM Projects WHERE

CustId = (SELECT CustId FROM Customers WHERE
Name=’XYZ’)

Database System 5-25

 Cont..
TEST Operators in sub query:

The ANY and ALL operators are used with a WHERE or HAVING
clause.

The ANY operator returns true if any of the sub query values meet
the condition.
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name
operator ANY(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHE
RE condition);
Eg: SELECT ProductName FROM Products
WHERE ProductID= ANY (SELECT ProductID FROM
OrderDetails WHERE Quantity = 10);
Database System 5-26
 Cont..
The ALL operator returns true if all of the sub query values meet
the condition.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s)FROM table_name

WHERE column_name operator ALL
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);

The operator must be a standard comparison operator (=, <>, !=,

>, >=, <, or <=)

Eg: SELECT ProductName FROM Products

WHERE ProductID= ALL (SELECT ProductID FROM

OrderDetails WHERE Quantity > 99);

Database System 5-27
 Cont..
The EXISTS operator: is used to test for the existence of any record in
a sub query.

The EXISTS operator returns true if the sub query returns one or more
records.
EXISTS Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
The BETWEEN operator: selects values within a given range. The
values can be numbers, text, or dates. It is inclusive: begin and end
values are included.
Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

Database System 5-28

 Cont..
Example: Write a query to retrieve customers that at least own project

SELECT Name, Address FROM Customers AS c WHERE EXISTS

(SELECT * FROM Projects AS p WHERE c.CustId=p.CustId)

SELECT SupplierName FROM Suppliers

WHERE EXISTS (SELECT ProductName FROM Products

WHERE Products.SupplierID = Suppliers.supplierID AND Price

< 20);

Database System 5-29

 Cont..
A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables,
based on a related column between them.

types of join:-

The INNER JOIN keyword selects records that have matching

values in both tables.

SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Database System 5-30

 Cont..
The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table
(table1), and the matched records from the right table (table2). The
result is NULL from the right side, if there is no match.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

left outer JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Database System 5-31

 Cont..
The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table
(table2), and the matched records from the left table (table1). The
result is NULL from the left side, when there is no match.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

right outer JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 Cont..
The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all records when there is a
match in left (table1) or right (table2) table records.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1

full outer JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 Cont..
Cross Product <left_table> CROSS JOIN <right_table> . The Cross
product forms the Cartesian product set from the participating tables.

Natural Join <left_table> NATURAL JOIN <right_table> The natural

join forms a join of rows with identical values in the common
attributes of the participating tables.

Theta Join <left_table> JOIN <right_table> ON<condition> The theta

join forms the theta join on the joining condition specified by the ON
clause.

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 Cont..
Example: The query that retrieves employees name and phone that are
participating on projects that are owned by the customer ‘XYZ’ can be
modified as follows using joined tables:

SELECT Name, Phone FROM Employees WHERE EmpId IN (SELECT

EmpId FROM EmpTeams NATURAL JOIN Teams WHERE PrjId IN
(SELECT PrjId FROM Projects AS p JOIN Customers AS c ON
p.CustId=c.CustId WHERE c.Name=’XYZ’))

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 Cont..
Example: A query to retrieve all the projects and the teams they
consist if any:

SELECT p.Name, p.SDATE, p.DDate, t.Name, t.Descr FROM

Projects AS p LEFT OUTER JOIN Teams AS t ON p.PrjId=t.PrjId

The query returns all the projects, and if the projects are having teams
the teams will be joined with the teams as well. Projects having more
than one team will be joined with each teams in the resulting table.

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 Cont..
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or
descending order. It sorts the records in ascending order by default. To
sort the records in descending order, use the DESC keyword.

The default order sequence is ASC that can be omitted.

Syntax:
SELECT column1, column2, ...FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

Eg1: SELECT * FROM Customers ORDER BY Country,

Countryname DESC;

Eg2: SELECT * FROM Customers

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 Cont..
The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the same values
into summary rows, like "find the number of customers in each
country". Is often used with aggregate functions (COUNT, MAX,
MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the result-set by one or more columns.

Syntax: SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name

WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);

Eg1:- SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country FROM Customers

GROUP BY Country;
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Eg2:- SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), 5-38
Country FROM Customers
 Aggregate Function in SQL
The COUNT() function: returns the number of rows that matches a
specified criteria.

Syntax: SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

The AVG() function: returns the average value of a numeric column.

Syntax: SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name

WHERE condition;

The SUM() function: returns the total sum of a numeric column.

Syntax: SELECT SUM(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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 Cont..
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
Syntax: SELECT MAX(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

The MIN() function: returns the smallest value of the selected

column.
Syntax: SELECT MIN(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Eg1: SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice FROM Products;
SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice FROM Products;

WHERE applies to data read from tables, and HAVING should only
apply to aggregated data, which isn't known in the initial stage of a
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 views
In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL
statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in
a view are fields from one or more real tables in the database.

You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view
and present the data as if the data were coming from one single table.

Syntax: CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name WHERE condition;

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