Computer

Network
By

Ch. Narasimha Chari

Sc.’C’ DLRL
([email protected])
 What is Network ?

• Interconnection of two or more computers

• Sharing resources and information

• Modes of communication may be broadcast
or point to point (both may be shared or
dedicated links)
 Why computers are networked ?
• Cost reduction by sharing hardware and software
resources
• High reliability by having multiple sources of supply
• Cost reduction by downsizing to microcomputer
based networks instead of using mainframes
• Greater flexibility because of possibility to connect
devices from various vendors
• Increase productivity by making easier to share data
amongst users
 Cost/Benefit analysis of Network
• Resource Sharing
• High Reliability
• Saving Money
• Scalability
• Communication Medium
• Increased Productivity
 Types of Network
• LAN (Local Area Network)
- Computers are geographically close together (i.e. in same building)

• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

- Computers designed for town or city

• WAN (Wide Area Network)

- Computers are farthest apart are connected by telephone lines or radio
waves
 Characteristics of Networks
• Topology
- geometric arrangement of computer system. e.g bus, star, ring etc

• Protocol
- common set of rules and signals used for communication. E.g. ethernet,
token-ring network

• Architecture
- type of structure e.g. peer-to-peer or client/server architecture
 Network Topology
• the way in which the network of computers is
connected
• Different types of topologies are
 Bus
 Mesh
 Star
 Ring
 Tree
 Unconstrained
 Shared Broadcast Links
• Point to point communication
• Each pair of communicating nodes use the link
for a short time
• Other nodes ignore the communication
• There has to be a distributed protocol to
decide who gets to use the link
 Bus Topology

• Key Features
o Flexible
o Expandable
o Moderate Reliability
o Moderate performance
 Bus Topology (2)

• Single cable connects all computers

• Each computer has a connector to shared
cable
• Computers must synchronize and allow only
one computer to transmit at a time
 Bus Topology (3)
• Network maintained by a single cable
• Cable segment must end with a terminator
• Uses thin coaxial cable (backbones will be
thick coaxial cable)
• Extra stations can be added in a daisy chain
manner
 Bus Topology (4)
• Standard is IEEE 802.3
• Thin Ethernet (10Base2) has a maximum
segment length of 200m
• Max no. of connections is 30 devices
• Four repeaters may be used to total cable
length of 1000m
• Max no. of nodes is 150
 Bus Topology (5)
• Thick Ethernet (10Base5) used for backbones
• Limited to 500m
• Max of 100 nodes per segment
• Total of four repeaters, 2500m, with a total of
488 nodes
 Bus Topology (6)
Advantages Disadvantages

• Inexpensive to install • No longer recommended

• Easy to add stations • Backbone breaks, whole
network down
• Use less cable than other • limited no. of devices
can be attached
• Works well for small networks • Difficult to isolate
problems • Sharing same cable
slows response time
Direct point to point communication
• Computers connected by communication
channels that each connect exactly two
computers
• Forms mesh or point-to-point network
• Allow flexibility in communication hardware,
packet formats etc.
• Provides security and privacy because
communication channel not shared
 Connections in a point-to-point
network
• Number of wires grows as square of number
of computers
 Reducing the number of
communication channels
• LANs developed in late 1960s and early 1970s
• Reduce number of connections by sharing
connections among many computers
• Computers take turns-Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM)
• Must include techniques for synchronizing use
 Star Topology

• Key Features
o High Speed
o Very Flexible
o High Reliability
o High Maintainability
 Extended Star Topology
A Star
Network
Which has
Been
Expanded to
Include an
Additional
Hub or hubs
Hybrid Topology
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology (2)
• Computers connected in a closed loop
• First passes data to second, second passes
data to third, and so on
• In practice, there is a short connector cable
from the computer to the ring
• Ring connections may run past offices with
connector cable to socket in the office.
 Ring Topology (3)
• No beginning or end ( a ring in fact!!)
• All devices have equal access to media
• Single ring - data travels in one direction only
• Double ring – allows fault tolerance
• Each device has to wait its turn to transmit
• Most common type is token ring (IEEE 802.5)
• A token contains data, reaches the destination, data
extracted, acknowledgement of receipt sent back to
transmitting device, removed, empty token passed
on for another device to use
 Ring Topology (4)
Advantages Disadvantages

• Data packets travels at • Requires more cable

than
great speed a bus
• No collisions • A break in the ring will
bring it down
• Easier to fault find • not as common as the
bus
– less devices available
• No terminators required
 Token Ring
• Many LAN technologies that use ring topology
use token passing for synchronized access to
the ring
• Ring itself is treated as a single, shared
communication medium
• Bits pass from transmitter, past other
computers and are copied by destination
• Hardware must be designed to pass token
even if attached computer is powered down
 Token Ring(2)

Computers not holding Sender holding token

the token passes bits transmits bits of frame

Destination passes Sender receives bits of

And makes a copy the frame

 Using the token
• When a computer wants to transmit, it waits
for the token
• After transmission, computer transmits token
on the ring
• Next computer ready to transmit receives
token and then transmits
 FDDI
• Fiber Distributed Data Interconnect (FDDI) is
another ring technology
• Uses fiber optics between stations
• Transmits data at 100Mbps
• Uses pairs of fibers to form two concentric
rings
 Hybrid Topology
• Old networks are updated and replaced
leaving older segments (legacy)
• Hybrid Topology – combines two or more
different physical topologies
• Commonly Star-Bus or Star-Ring
• Star-Ring uses a Mau (Multistation Access
Unit)
 Mesh Topology

• Key Features
o Fully connected
o Robust – Highly reliable
o Not flexible
o Poor expandability
 Mesh Topology(2)
• Not common on LANs
• Most often used in WANs to interconnect
LANs
• Each node is connected to every other node
• Allows communication to continue in the
event of a break in any one connection
• It is “Fault Tolerant”
 Mesh Topology (3)
Advantages Disadvantages

• Improves fault tolerance • Expensive

• Can carry more data • Difficult to install
• Difficult to manage
• Difficult to
troubleshoot
 Why multiple topologies
• Each has advantages and disadvantages
• Ring ease synchronization; may be disabled if any
cable is cut
• Star easier to manage and more robust; requires
more cable
• Bus requires fewer cables; may be disabled if cable is
cut
• Industry is setting on star topology as most
widely used
 Physical v/s Logical Topology
• The actual layout and its media is its Physical
Topology
• The way in which the data access the medium
and transmits packets is the Logical Topology
• A glance at a network is not always revealing.
Cables emerging from Hub does not make it
necessarily a Star Topology – it may actually
be a bus or ring
 Examples
• Physical Star and Logical Ring

B A

D
 Examples (2)
• Physical Star and Logical Mesh

B A
D

D
 Physical v/s Logical Topology (2)
• Your choice of Logical Topology will affect the
Physical Topology – and vice versa
• Design carefully – it may be difficult to change
part way through the installation
• Your choice will determine cable installation,
network devices, network connections,
protocol (and where you will drill holes in the
building)
 Factors
• Cost
• Scalability
• Bandwidth Capacity
• Ease of Installation
• Ease of fault finding and maintenance
 Medium Access Control (MAC)
• A network of computers based on multi-access medium
requires a protocol for effective sharing of the media
• Only one node can send or transmit signal at a time using the
broadcast mode, the main problem here is how different
nodes get control of the medium to send data, that is “who
goes next?”.
• The protocols used for this purpose are known as Medium
Access Control (MAC) techniques.
• The key issues involved here are - Where and How the control
is exercised.
 Medium Access Control (MAC)(2)
• ‘Where’ refers to whether the control is exercised in a
centralised or distributed manner.
• In a centralised system a master node grants access of the
medium to other nodes.
o Greater control to provide features like priority, overrides, and
guaranteed bandwidth.
o Simpler logic at each node.
o Easy coordination.
• In a distributed approach all the nodes collectively perform a
medium access control function and dynamically decide
which node to be granted access.
o more reliable than centralised
 Medium Access Control (MAC)(3)
• ‘How’ refers to in what manner the control is
exercised.
• It is constrained by the topology and trade off
between cost-performance and complexity.
MAC Approaches
 MAC Approaches (2)
• Random and Round Robin techniques are
used for LANs of IEEE standard
• The CSMA/CA, a collision-free protocol used in
wireless LAN
• Channelization-based MACs, which are used in
cellular telephone networks
• The reservation-based MACs, which are used
in satellite networks
 MAC Approaches (3)
• In Round Robin techniques, each and every
node is given the chance to send or transmit by
rotation.
• When a node gets its turn to send, it may either decline to send, if it has no
data or may send if it has got data to send.
• Polling is an example of centralised control and token passing is an example
of distributed control.
• The mechanism of polling is similar to the roll-call performed in a classroom.
A controller sends a message to each node in turn. The message contains the
address of the node being selected for granting access.
• In token passing scheme, all stations are logically connected in the form of a
ring and control of the access to the medium is performed using a token.
 MAC Approaches (4)
• The ALOHA scheme was invented by Abramson in 1970 for a packet radio
network connecting remote stations to a central computer and various
data terminals at the campus of the university of Hawaii.
• In CSMA(Carrier Sensing Multiple Access)scheme, a node having data to
transmit first listens to the medium to check whether another
transmission is in progress or not. The node starts sending only when the
channel is free, that is there is no carrier. That is why the scheme is also
known as listen-before-talk.
• CSMA/CD (Carrier Sensing Multiple Access with Collision Detection)
protocol can be considered as a refinement over the CSMA scheme. It will
monitor the channel while transmitting a packet and immediately cease
transmission when collision is detected. This scheme is also called as
Listen-While-Talk.
 IEEE CSMS/CD based LANs
• A LAN consists of shared transmission medium and a
set of hardware and software for interfacing devices
to the medium and regulating the ordering access to
the medium.
• LAN protocols function at the lowest two layers of
the OSI reference model: the physical and data-link
layers.
• The IEEE 802 LAN is a shared medium peer-to-peer
communications network that broadcasts
information for all stations to receive.
 IEEE 802 Legacy LANs

• The 802.1 sublayer gives an introduction to set of standards and gives

the details of the interface primitives. It provides relationship between
the OSI model and the 802 standards.

• The 802.2 sublayer describes the LLC (logical link layer), which is the
upper part of the data link layer. LLC facilitate error control and flow
control for reliable communication.
 IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet
• Ethernet refers to the family of local-area network (LAN)
products covered by the IEEE 802.3 standard that defines
what is commonly known as the CSMA/CD protocol.
• Ethernet has survived as the major LAN technology (it is
currently used for approximately 85 percent of the world's
LAN-connected PCs and workstations)
• Three data rates are currently defined for operation over
optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
 10 Mbps —10Base-T Ethernet
 100 Mbps —Fast Ethernet
 1000 Mbps—Gigabit Ethernet
 Ethernet Architecture
• Ethernet architecture can be divided into two layers:
 Physical layer: this layer takes care of following functions.
• Encoding and decoding
• Collision detection
• Carrier sensing
• Transmission and receipt
 Data link layer: Following are the major functions of this
layer.
• Station interface
• Data Encapsulation /Decapsulation
• Link management
• Collision Management
 Ethernet Architecture (2)
• The naming convention of Ethernet is a
concatenation of three terms indicating the
transmission rate, the transmission method,
and the media type/signal encoding.
• E.g. 10Base-T. where
 10 implies transmission rate of 10 Mbps,
 Base represents that it uses baseband signaling, and
 T refers to twisted-pair cables as transmission media.
 Ethernet Architecture (3)

• 10Base-5: It supports 10 Mbps baseband transmission. The standard

specifies 0.5 inch coaxial cable, known as yellow cable or thick Ethernet.
• 10Base-2: It supports 10 Mbps baseband transmission. The standard
specifies 0.25 inch coaxial cable, known as cheapernet or thin Ethernet.
• 10Base-T: This standard supports 10 Mbps baseband transmission
and uses 24AWG Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)cable of both
Cat-3 and Cat-5 category cables
• 10Base-F: It allows long distance connections using optical fiber. This
topology is same as 10Base-T, but the medium is a pair of optical fiber
instead of twisted-pair of wire.
 Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)
• Originally, IBM developed Token Ring network in the 1970s. It is still IBM's
primary local-area network (LAN) technology.
• The term Token Ring is generally used to refer to both IBM's Token Ring
network and IEEE 802.5 networks.
• Token Ring and IEEE802.5 are based on token passing MAC protocol with
ring topology.
• They resolve the uncertainty by giving each station a turn on by one. Each
node takes turns sending the data; each station may transmit data during
its turn.
• The technique that coordinates this turn mechanism is called Token
passing; as a Token is passed in the network and the station that gets the
token can only transmit. As one node transmits at a time, there is no
chance of collision.
 Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)
• Token Ring network has a physical implementation limitation
i.e. as a break in the ring cable could bring the whole network
down and ring is a poor fit to their linear assembly lines.
• Thus a new standard, known as Token bus, was developed,
having the robustness of the Bus topology, but the known
worst-case behavior of a ring.
• Here stations are logically connected as a ring but physically
on a Bus and follows the collision-free token passing medium
access control protocol.
• Token bus provides deterministic delivery time, which is
necessary for real time traffic.
• Token bus is also less vulnerable compared to token ring.
Comparison of the three standards

• Function CSMA/CD Token bus Token

ring
• Access determination Contention Token Token
• Packet length restriction 64 bytes None None
(Greater than 2.Tprop)
• Priority Not supported Supported Supported
• Sensitivity to work load Most sensitive Sensitive Least
sensitive
• Principle advantage Simplicity, Regulated/
Regulated/ wide installed fair access
fair access
• Principle disadvantage Nondeterministic Complexity
Complexity delay
 Fiber Distributed Data Interface
(FDDI)
• Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), developed by
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a token
passing ring network that operates at 100 Mb/s on optical
fiber-medium.
• Its medium access control approach has close similarity with
the IEEE 802.5 standard, but certain features have been
added to it for higher reliability and better performance.
• The FDDI standard divides transmission functions into 4
protocols: physical medium dependent (PMD), Physical (PHY),
media access control(MAC) and Logical link control(LLC)
 FDDI Protocol

• The standard physical medium is multi-mode 62.5/125 micron optical

fiber cable using light emitting diode (LED) transmitting at 1300
nanometers, as the light source.
• FDDI can support up to 500 stations with a maximum distance of 2 Km
between stations and maximum ring circumference of 200 Km.
 FDDI Protocol (2)
• The standard has also been extended to include copper media - Shielded
Twisted Pair (STP) and some categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
with a maximum distance of 100 m between stations. FDDI over copper is
referred to as Copper-Distributed Data Interface (CDDI).
• Optical fiber has several advantages over copper media. In particular,
security, reliability, and performance are all enhanced with optical fiber
media because fiber does not emit electrical signals.
• FDDI physical layer specifications
Trans. Medium Optical Fiber 62.5/125 um Twisted pair CAT5-UTP
• Data Rate 100 Mbps 100Mbps
• Signaling Technique 4B/5B/NRZ-I 125 Mbaud MTL-3
• Max. No. Repeaters 100 100
• Max. distance 2Km 100m
Comparison among STANDARDS
Parameters FDDI IEEE 802.3 IEEE 802.5
• BANDWIDTH 100Mb/s 10Mb/s 4 or 16Mb/s
• NUMBER OF STATIONS 500 1024 250
• MAX. DISTANCE 2Km (MMF) 2.8Km 300m (4Mb/s)
BETWEEN STATIONS 20Km (SMF) 100m (RECO.)
• MAX. NETWORK EXTENT 100Km 2.8Km Varied with config
• LOGICAL TOPOLOGY DUAL RING BUS SINGLE RING
• PHYSICAL TOPOLOGY RING, STAR BUS, STAR RING, BUS
• MEDIA OPTICAL FIBER OPTICAL FIBRE, OPTICAL FIBRE,
TWISTED-WIRE, TWISTED-WIRE,
COAXIAL CABLE
• ACCESS METHODTimed TOKEN PASSING CSMA/CD TOKEN
• MAX. FRAME SIZE 4500 BYTES 1518 BYTES 4500 Bytes(4)
17,800 BYTES (16)
 Successors of Ethernet
• On a regular Ethernet segment, all stations share the available bandwidth
of 10 Mb/s.
• With the increase in traffic, the number of packet collisions goes up,
lowering the overall throughput.
• One is to replace the Ethernet with a higher speed version of Ethernet.
• Use of Fast Ethernet operating at 100 Mb/s and Gigabit Ethernet
operating at 1000 Mb/s belong to this category.
• The other approach is to use Ethernet switches (let us call it switched
Ethernet approach) that use a high-speed internal bus to switch packets
between multiple (8 to 32) cable segments and offer dedicated 10 Mb/s
bandwidth on each segment/ports.
 Switched Ethernet
• Switched Ethernet gives dedicated 10 Mb/s bandwidth on each of its
ports. On each of the ports one can connect either a thick/thin segment
or a computer.
• In Switched Ethernet, the collision domain is separated. The hub is
replaced by a switch, which functions as a fast bridge.
• It can recognize the destination address of the received frame and can
forward the frame to the port to which the destination station is
connected.
• The other ports are not involved in the transmission process.
• The switch can receive another frame from another station at the same
time and can route this frame to its own final destination.
• In this case, both the physical and logical topologies are star.
Difference Between 802.3 and
Switched LAN

IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) Switched LAN

 Fast Ethernet
• The 802.u or the fast Ethernet, as it is commonly known, was approved by
the IEEE 802 Committee in June 1995.
• The fast Ethernet uses the same frame format, same CSMA/CD protocol
and same interface as the 802.3, but uses a data transfer rate of 100 Mb/s
instead of 10 Mb/s.
• fast Ethernet is based entirely on 10-Base-T, because of its advantages
• IEEE has designed two categories of Fast Ethernet: 100Base-X and
100Base-T4.
• 100Base-X uses two-wire interface between a hub and a station while
100Base-T4 uses four-wire interface.
• 100-Base-X itself is divided into two: 100Base-TX and 100base-FX
 Gigabit Ethernet
• As applications increased, the demand on the network, newer, high-speed
protocols such as FDDI and ATM became available.
• The primary goal of Gigabit Ethernet is to build on that topology and
knowledge base to build a higher-speed protocol without forcing
customers to throw away existing networking equipment.
• In March 1996, the IEEE 802.3 committee approved the 802.3z Gigabit
Ethernet Standardization project.
• Gigabit Ethernet builds on top of the Ethernet protocol, but increases
speed tenfold over Fast Ethernet to 1000 Mbps, or 1 gigabit per second
(GBPS).
• It retains the Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection
(CSMA/CD) as the access method.
• It supports full duplex as well as half duplex modes of operation.
 Wireless LANs
• In the last two decades the wired version of LAN has
gained wide popularity and large-scale deployment.
• IEEE 802.11 is commonly referred to as wireless
Ethernet
• Wireless LANs have following advantages
 Availability of low-cost portable equipments
 Mobility
 Installation speed and simplicity
 Installation flexibility
 Reduced cost of ownership
 Scalability
 Wireless LANs (2)
• However, wireless LAN technology needs to
overcome a number of inherent limitations and
challenges.
 Lower reliability due to susceptibility of radio transmission to noise and
interference.
 Fluctuation of the strength of the received signal through multiple paths
causing fading.
 Vulnerable to eavesdropping leading to security problem.
 Limited data rate because of the use of spread spectrum transmission
techniques enforced to ISM band users.
 Wireless LANs (3)
• Wireless LANs operated in ISM Bands
• In 1985 the United States released the industrial, scientific,
and medical (ISM) frequency bands.
• These bands are 902 - 928MHz, 2.4 - 2.4853 GHz, and 5.725 -
5.85 GHz and do not require licensing by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC).
• There are three media that can be used for transmission over
wireless LANs.
 Infrared
 Radio frequency and
 Microwave.
 Wireless LANs (4)
• Infrared
 Infrared systems (IR systems) use the same signal frequencies used on
fiber optic links.
 IR systems detect only the amplitude of the signal and so interference is
greatly reduced.
 These systems are not bandwidth limited and thus can achieve
transmission speeds greater than the other systems.
 There are two conventional ways to set up an IR LAN.
• aimed
- gives a good range of a couple of kilometer and can be used outdoors.
• omni-directionally
- bounce the signals off of everything in every direction.
 InfraLAN is an example of wireless LANs using infrared technology.
 Wireless LANs (5)
• Microwave
 Microwave (MW) systems operate at less than 500 milliwatts
of power in compliance with FCC regulations.
 They use narrow-band transmission with single frequency
modulation and are set up mostly in the 5.8GHz band.
 The big advantage to MW systems is higher throughput
achieved because they do not have the overhead involved
with spread spectrum s systems.
 RadioLAN is an example of systems with microwave
technology.
 Wireless LANs (6)
• Radio
 Radio frequency systems must use spread spectrum
technology in the United States
 This spread spectrum technology currently comes in two
types
• Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
• Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS
 There is a lot of overhead involved with spread spectrum and
so most of the DSSS and FHSS systems have historically had
lower data rates than IR or MW.
 Wireless LANs (7)
• IEEE 802.11 extensions
 802.11b: This standard was developed by IEEE with the support from the
consortium Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA).
 802.11a: The successor to 802.11b is 802.11a with greater speed and at a
different frequency.
 802.11g: The success of 802.11b has led to another extension that
provides 22 Mbps transmission.
• WiFi
- It essentially denotes a set of Wireless LAN standards developed by the
working group 11 of the IEEE LAN/MAN Standards Committee (IEEE 802).
• WiMAX
-stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access by the
WiMAX Forum.
 Bluetooth
• Bluetooth wireless technology is a short-range radio technology,
which is developed for Personal Area Network (PAN).
• Bluetooth is a standard developed by a group of electronics
manufacturers that allows any sort of electronic equipment --
from computers and cell phones to keyboards and headphones --
to make its own connections, without wires, cables or any direct
action from a user.
• It is an ad hoc type network operable over a small area such as a
room.
• Bluetooth wireless technology makes it possible to transmit
signals over short distances between telephones, computers and
other devices and thereby simplify communication and
synchronization between devices.
 Bluetooth (2)
• It is a global standard that:
 Eliminates wires and cables between both stationary and mobile devices
 Facilitates both data and voice communication
 Offers the possibility of ad hoc networks and delivers the ultimate
synchronicity between all your personal devices
• Bluetooth is a standard for a small, cheap radio chip to be
plugged into computers, printers, mobile phones, etc
• A Bluetooth chip is designed to replace cables by taking the
information normally carried by the cable, and transmitting it
at a special frequency to a receiver Bluetooth chip, which will
then give the information received to the computer, phone
whatever.
 Bluetooth (3)
• There are two types of topology for Bluetooth – Piconet, Scatternet.
• The Piconet is a small ad hoc network of devices (normally 8 stations) as
shown

o One is called Master and the others are

called Slaves
o All slave stations synchronizes their clocks
with the master
o Possible communication - One-to-one or
one-to-many
o There may be one station in parked state
o Each piconet has a unique hopping
pattern/ID
o Each master can connect to 7
simultaneous or 200+ inactive (parked)
slaves per piconet
 Bluetooth (4)
• Scatternet is formed by combining several Piconets as shown

Key features of the scatternet topology

are mentioned below:
•A Scatternet is the linking of
multiple co-located piconets
through the sharing of common
master or slave devices.
•A device can be both a master and a
slave.
•Radios are symmetric (same radio
can be master or slave).
•High capacity system, each
piconet has maximum capacity (720
Kbps)
 Cellular Telephone Networks
• In the early years of mobile radio systems, a large coverage
was achieved by using a single high-powered transmitter with
the antenna mounted on tall tower.
• The cellular concept was invented in solving the spectral
congestion and user capacity.
• Cellular telephony is a system-level concept, which replaces a
single high power transmitter with a large number of low-
power transmitters for communication between any two
devices over a large geographic area.
• Primary goal of the cellular telephone network is to provide
wireless communication between two moving devices, called
mobile stations or between one mobile unit and a stationary
unit, commonly referred to as land-line unit.
Cellular Telephone Networks (2)
• a cellular system comprises the
following basic components:
• Mobile Stations (MS): Mobile
handsets, which is used by an
user to communicate with
another user
• Cell: Each cellular service area
is divided into small regions
called cell (5 to 20 Km)
• Base Stations (BS): Each cell
contains an antenna, which is
controlled by a small office.
• Mobile Switching Center
(MSC): Each base station is
controlled by a switching office,
called mobile switching center
 Cellular Telephone Networks (3)
• Medium Access Control Techniques
 Channelization is a multiple access method in which the available
bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency or using code by a
number of stations.

 There are three approaches

• FDMA: The bandwidth is divided into separate frequency bands.
• TDMA: The bandwidth is timeshared
• CDMA: Data from all stations are transmitted simultaneously and are
separated based on coding theory
 Generations of Cellular Telephone
Networks
• First Generation System
 The first generation was designed for voice communication.
 One example is Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) used in North
America.
 AMPS is an analog cellular phone system. It uses 800 MHz ISM band and
two separate analog channels; forward and reverse analog channels.

• Second Generation System

 To provide better voice quality, the second generation was developed for
digitized voice communication.
 The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication is a European
standard developed to replace the first generation technology
 Generations of Cellular Telephone
Networks (2)
• Third Generation Systems
 Goals of the third generation (3G) technologies are
• Allow both digital data and voice communication.
• To facilitate universal personnel communication.
• Listen music, watch movie, access internet, video conference, etc.
• Criteria for 3G Technologies are:
• Voice quality: Same as present PSTN network.
• Data rate: 144Kbps (car), 384 (pedestrians) and 2Mbps (stationary).
• Support for packet-switched and circuit-switched data services.
• Bandwidth of 2 MHz.
• Interface to the internet.
 ITU developed a blueprint called Internet Mobile Communication for year
2000 (IMT-2000).
 Satellite Networks
• Microwave frequencies, which travel in straight lines, are commonly used
for wideband communication.
• The curvature of the earth results in obstruction of the signal between
two earth stations and the signal also gets attenuated with the distance it
traverses.
• To overcome both the problems, it is necessary to use a repeater, which
can receive a signal from one earth station, amplify it, and retransmit it to
another earth station.
• Larger the height of a repeater from the surface of the earth, longer is the
distance of line-of-sight communication.
• Satellite networks were originally developed to provide long-distance
telephone service.
• for communication over long distances, satellites are a natural choice for
use as repeaters in the sky.
 Satellite Networks (2)
• Various types of orbits taken by different satellites
• Artificial satellites deployed in the sky rotate around the earth
on different orbits.
• The orbits can be categorized into three types as follows:
 Equatorial
 Inclined
 Polar
 Footprint of Satellites
• Signals from a satellite is normally aimed at a specific area called the
footprint. Power is maximum at the center of the footprint.
• It decreases as the point moves away from the footprint center.
• The amount of time a beam is pointed to a given area is known as dwell
time.

(a) Footprint using a global beam (b) Footprint using a phased array antenna
 Categories of Satellites
• The satellites can be categorized into three different types , based on the
location of the orbit.
• These orbits are chosen such that the satellites are not destroyed by the
high-energy charged particles present in the two Van Allen belts

• The Low Earth Orbit (LEO) is below

the lower Van Allen belt in the
altitude of 500 to 2000 Km.
• The Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) is
in between the lower Van Allen
belt and upper Van Allen belt in
the altitude of 5000 to 15000 Km.
• Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) at
the altitude of about 36,000 Km.
• Below the Geostationary Earth
Orbit and above the upper Van
Allen belt is Global Positioning
System (GPS) satellites at the
altitude of 20,000 Km.
Categories of Satellites (2)
 Frequency bands for satellite
communication
• Two frequencies are necessary for communication between a ground station
and a satellite; one for communication from the ground station on the earth
to the satellite called uplink frequency and another frequency for
communication from the satellite to a station on the earth, called downlink
frequency.
• These frequencies, reserved for satellite communication, are divided in
several bands such as L, S, Ku, etc are in the gigahertz (microwave) frequency
range
• Higher the frequency, higher is the available bandwidth.
Than Q