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1 DAA - Handout-01-Introduction

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21 views22 pages

1 DAA - Handout-01-Introduction

Uploaded by

Bilal Shabbir
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Design & Analysis of Algorithms

Handout-01

Introduction
Introduction

• Algorithms are the ideas behind computer programs.

• An algorithm is the thing which stays the same


whether the program is in C++ running on a PC in
New York or is in Android running on a Smartphone in
Lahore!
What is Algorithm?
• Sequence of steps that can be taken to solve a
problem
• An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions
for solving a problem in a finite amount of time.
• An Algorithm is well defined computational procedure that
takes some value, or set of values, as input and produces
some value, or set of values as output.
• More generally, an Algorithm is any well defined
computational procedure that takes collection of elements
as input and produces a collection of elements as output.

Input output
Algorithm
• It must be correct.
• It must be composed of a series of
concrete steps.
– The execution sequence of instructions
should not be ambiguous.
• It must have finite number of instructions
and steps.
– It must terminate.

4
Syntax & Semantics
An algo. is “correct” if its: WARNINGS:
– Semantics are correct
1. An algo. can be
– Syntax is correct syntactically correct,
yet semantically
Semantics: incorrect – very
The concept embedded in dangerous situation!
an algorithm (the soul!)
2. Syntactic
correctness is easier
Syntax: to check as
The actual representation compared with
of an algorithm (the body!) semantic
Solving Problems (1)
When faced with a problem:
1. We first clearly define the problem

2. Think of possible solutions

3. Select the one that we think is the best


under the prevailing circumstances

4. And then apply that solution

5. If the solution woks as desired, fine; else we


go back to step 2
Solving Problems(2)
•It is quite common to first solve a problem for a
particular case

•Then for another

•And, possibly another

•And watch for patterns and trends that emerge

•And to use the knowledge form those patterns


and trends in coming up with a general solution

•And this general solution is called …………….


Early History:
Search for a Generic Algorithm
• The study of algorithms began with
mathematicians and was a significant area of
work in the early years

• The goal of those early studies was to find a


single, general algorithm that could solve all
problems of a single type
Origin of the Term “Algorithm”
• The name derives from the title of a Latin
book: Algoritmi de numero Indorum

• That book was a translation of an Arabic book:


Al-Khwarizmi Concerning the Hindu Art of
Reckoning

• That book was written by the famous 9-th


century Muslim mathematician, Muhammad
ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi
Al-Khwarzmi

• Al-Khwarizmi lived in Baghdad, where he worked at


the Dar al-Hikma
• Dar al-Hikma acquired and translated books on
science and philosophy, particularly those in Greek, as
well as publishing original research
• The word Algebra has its origins in the title of another
Latin book which was a translation of yet another book
written by Al-Khwarzmi:
Kitab al-Mukhtasar fi Hisab al-Jabr wa'l-Muqabala
Al-Khwarizmi’s Golden Principle
All complex problems can be and must be solved
using the following simple steps:

1. Break down the problem into small, simple


sub-problems
2. Arrange the sub-problems in such an order
that each of them can be solved without
effecting any other
3. Solve them separately, in the correct order
4. Combine the solutions of the sub-problems to
form the solution of the original problem
Problem
Algorithm: A sequence of
instructions describing
how to do a task

12
• Algorithm
• It is a method followed to solve a problem.
• A mapping of input to output. As mentioned earlier
on slide no. 4.
• A problem can have many algorithms
• Computer program
• It is a concrete representation of an algorithm in
some programming language
• A set of instructions which the computer will follow t
o solve a problem

13
Why Algorithms are Useful?
• Once we find an algorithm for solving a
problem, we do not need to re-discover it the
next time we are faced with that problem

• Once an algorithm is known, the task of


solving the problem reduces to following
(almost blindly and without thinking) the
instructions precisely

• All the knowledge required for solving the


problem is present in the algorithm
Why Write an Algorithm Down?
• For your own use in the future, so that you
don’t have spend the time for rethinking it

• Written form is easier to modify and improve

• Makes it easy when explaining the process


to others
Problem and Instances
• An input sequence is called an instance of a
Problem

• A problem has many particular instances

• An algorithm must work correctly on all


instances of the problem it claims to solve

16
Popular Algorithms, Factors of Dependence
• Most basic and popular algorithms are
– Sorting algorithms
– Searching algorithms
Which algorithm is best?
• Mainly, it depends upon various factors, for
example in case of sorting
– The number of items to be sorted
– The extent to which the items are already sorted
– The kind of storage device to be used etc.
One Problem, Many Algorithms
Problem
• The statement of the problem specifies, in general
terms, the desired input/output relationship.
Algorithm
• The algorithm describes a specific computational
procedure for achieving input/output relationship.
Example
• One might need to sort a sequence of numbers
into non-decreasing order.
Algorithms
• Various algorithms e.g. merge sort, quick sort,
heap sorts etc.
Important Designing Techniques
• Brute Force
– Straightforward, naive approach
– Mostly expensive
• Divide-and-Conquer
– Divide into smaller sub-problems
• Example: Merge sort, Quicksort etc
• Decrease-and-Conquer
– Decrease instance size
• Binary search, Interpolation search etc
• Transform-and-Conquer
– Modify problem first and then solve it
• Heap sort
Important Designing Techniques
• Greedy Approach
– Locally optimal decisions, can not change once made.
– Efficient
– Easy to implement
– The solution is expected to be optimal
– Every problem may not have greedy solution
• Dynamic programming
– Decompose into sub-problems like divide and conquer
– Sub-problems are dependant
– Record results of smaller sub-problems
– Re-use it for further occurrence
– Mostly reduces complexity exponential to polynomial
Problem Solving Process
• Problem
• Strategy
• Algorithm
– Input
– Output
– Steps
• Analysis
– Correctness
– Time & Space
– Optimality
• Implementation
• Verification
Questions

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