Unit – 3

SAMPLING
DESIGN
Sampling: Concepts, Types of Sampling, Probability
Sampling: simple random sampling, systematic
sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling,
Non Probability Sampling: convenience sampling-
judgmental sampling, snowball sampling, quota
sampling, Errors in sampling. .
 Define sampling

• Sampling The process

of selecting the right
individuals, objects, or
events as
representative of
entire population is
known as sampling
 Population
• Population It refers to the entire group of
people, events or things of interest that
the researcher wishes to investigate.
Example: If regulators want to know how
patients in nursing homes run by a
company in France are cared for, then all
the patients in all the nursing homes run
by them will from the population.
 Element

• An element is a single member of a population Example: If

1000 blue collar workers(labor workers) in a particular

organization happen to be the population of interest to a

researcher, each blue collar worker therein is an element.

 Sample
• A sample is a subset or subgroup of the population. By studying
the sample, the researcher should be able to draw conclusions
that are generalizable to the population of interest. Example: If
there are 145 in-patients in a hospital and 40 of them are to be
surveyed by the hospital administrator to access their level of
satisfaction with the treatment received, then these 40
members will be the sample.
 Sampling unit

• Sampling unit It is the element or set of elements that is

available for selection in some stage of sampling process.
Example: Sampling units in a multistage sample are city
blocks, households, and individuals within the households.
 Sampling Frame
• A sampling frame is a list of all the units in a population
that can be sampled. It can be a physical list, like a phone
book, or a description of the population, like a map.
• A sampling frame is the source material or device from
which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all those within a
population who can be sampled, and may include
individuals, households or institutions.
• For example, in an opinion poll, possible sampling frames
include an electoral register or a telephone directory.
Different Types
of Sampling
Techniques
 Steps
involved in
Sampling

• I firmly believe
visualizing a
concept is a
great way to
ingrain it in your
mind. So here’s
a step-by-step
process of how
sampling is
typically done, in
flowchart form
 What is
sampling?

• Sampling is a
technique of
selecting individual
members or a
subset of the
population to make
statistical
inferences from
them and estimate
characteristics of
the whole
population.
 Different Types of Sampling
Techniques

• Probability Sampling: In probability sampling, every

element of the population has an equal chance of being
selected. Probability sampling gives us the best chance to
create a sample that is truly representative of the population
• Non-Probability Sampling: In non-probability sampling, all
elements do not have an equal chance of being selected.
Consequently, there is a significant risk of ending up with a
non-representative sample which does not produce
generalizable results
 Simple
Random
Sampling

• Simple random sampling is a type

of probability sampling in which the
researcher randomly selects a
subset of participants from a
population. Each member of the
population has an equal chance of
being selected.

• This is a type of sampling technique

you must have come across at some
point. Here, every individual is
chosen entirely by chance and each
member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected
 Systematic
Sampling
• In this type of sampling, the first individual is
selected randomly and others are selected using
a fixed ‘sampling interval’. Let’s take a simple
example to understand this.
• Systematic sampling is a probability sampling
method where researchers select members of the
population at a regular interval – for example, by
selecting every 15th person on a list of the
population. If the population is in a random order,
this can imitate the benefits of simple random
sampling
• Say our population size is x and we have to select
a sample size of n. Then, the next individual that
we will select would be x/nth intervals away from
the first individual. We can select the rest in the
same way.
 Stratified
Sampling

• In this type of sampling, we

divide the population into
subgroups (called strata)
based on different traits
like gender, category, etc.
And then we select the
sample(s) from these
subgroups:
 Cluster
Sampling

• In a clustered sample, we
use the subgroups of the
population as the sampling
unit rather than individuals.
The population is divided
into subgroups, known as
clusters, and a whole cluster
is randomly selected to be
included in the study:
Advantages of Probability Sampling:
1. Representativeness: Probability sampling methods, such as simple random sampling or
stratified sampling, are designed to create samples that closely resemble the population
from which they are drawn. This ensures that the sample is more likely to be
representative of the entire population.
2. Statistical Inference: Probability samples are essential for making valid statistical
inferences about a population. Because each element in the population has a known
chance of being selected, statistical techniques can be used to estimate population
parameters and calculate measures of precision (e.g., confidence intervals and standard
errors).
3. Generalizability: Results obtained from probability samples can often be generalized to
the larger population with a known level of confidence. This is particularly important in
research and survey studies where the goal is to draw conclusions about a broader
population.
4. Reduced Selection Bias: Probability sampling methods minimize the risk of selection bias,
as they provide an equal opportunity for all population elements to be included in the
sample. This reduces the likelihood of favoring or excluding specific groups
unintentionally.
5. Transparency: Probability sampling procedures are typically straightforward and
transparent, making it easier for researchers to explain and defend their sampling
methodology.
 Disadvantages of Probability
Sampling:
1.Complexity: Some probability sampling methods, such as stratified or cluster
sampling, can be more complex to implement than non-probability methods.
They may require access to a comprehensive list of the population, which can be
challenging in some cases.
2.Resource-Intensive: In some situations, especially when dealing with large
and diverse populations, probability sampling can be resource-intensive, as it
may require extensive sampling frames and a larger budget for data collection.
3.Time-Consuming: The process of drawing a probability sample can take more
time compared to non-probability methods, which may not be ideal for studies
with tight timelines.
4.Variability: While probability sampling reduces selection bias, it does not
eliminate variability introduced by other factors such as non-response or
measurement error. Researchers must still consider and account for these
sources of error.
5.Sampling Frame Issues: A reliable and up-to-date sampling frame (a list of all
elements in the population) is essential for probability sampling. In some cases,
creating or obtaining such a frame can be challenging, especially for hidden or
hard-to-reach populations.
Types of Non-Probability
Sampling
 Advantages of Non-Probability
Sampling:
1. Simplicity and Convenience: Non-probability sampling methods, such
as convenience sampling or judgmental sampling, are often easier and
quicker to implement. They are suitable for situations where time and
resources are limited.
2. Cost-Effectiveness: Non-probability sampling methods can be more
cost-effective, especially when compared to the resource-intensive nature
of probability sampling methods that require comprehensive sampling
frames and extensive data collection efforts.
3. Practicality for Specific Research: In some cases, non-probability
sampling may be the only practical option, especially when dealing with
small or hard-to-reach populations. Researchers might choose non-
probability sampling if obtaining a probability sample is unfeasible.
4. Exploratory Research: Non-probability sampling is often used in
exploratory research or pilot studies, where the primary goal is to gain
preliminary insights or test a research idea before conducting a larger
study.
 Disadvantages of Non-Probability Sampling:
1. Bias and Limited Generalizability: Non-probability samples are susceptible to
various types of bias, including selection bias and sampling bias. This can lead to
results that are not representative of the larger population, reducing the
generalizability of findings.
2. Unknown Error Estimates: Without known probabilities of selection, it's
challenging to calculate accurate measures of precision, such as confidence
intervals and standard errors. This can hinder the ability to make valid statistical
inferences.
3. Difficulty in Interpretation: Results obtained from non-probability samples are
more difficult to interpret and generalize to the broader population. This can
weaken the credibility and impact of research findings.
4. Limited Control over Sampling Process: Non-probability sampling methods lack
the systematic control that probability sampling methods offer. Researchers may
unintentionally favor certain groups or characteristics, leading to an
unrepresentative sample.
5. Ethical Concerns: Convenience sampling, a common non-probability method, can
introduce ethical concerns if researchers select participants who are easy to
reach but not necessarily representative of the target population.
 - Convenience
Sampling
• This is perhaps the easiest method of sampling
because individuals are selected based on their
availability and willingness to take part.
• Convenience sampling is a qualitative
research sampling strategy that involves
selecting participants based on their
accessibility and availability to the
researcher. Rather than being drawn at
random from a bigger population,
participants in this strategy are picked
because they are easily available to the
researcher.
• Here, let’s say individuals numbered 4, 7, 12,
15 and 20 want to be part of our sample, and
hence, we will include them in the sample.
• Suppose a university professor wants to
conduct a quick survey on student opinions
about campus facilities. Instead of randomly
selecting students from the entire university,
the professor decides to distribute the survey
to students in their own classes. The students
in these classes are easily accessible, making
them a convenient sample.
 Quota
Sampling
• In this type of sampling, we choose items based
on predetermined characteristics of the
population. Consider that we have to select
individuals having a number in multiples of four
for our sample
• Imagine a market researcher is conducting a survey to
understand consumer preferences for a new product.
The researcher knows that the target population is
composed of 60% women and 40% men. To ensure that
the sample reflects this gender distribution, the
researcher decides to use quota sampling.
• A polling agency wants to understand the voting
intentions of the population in a city ahead of an
election. They know that the city's population is
composed of 50% young adults (ages 18-35), 30%
middle-aged adults (ages 36-55), and 20% older adults
(ages 56+). The agency decides to use quota sampling
to ensure that these age groups are represented in the
sample.
 Judgment
•
Sampling
Judgment sampling, also known as purposive sampling, is a non-
probability sampling method where the researcher uses their
expertise, knowledge, or judgment to select participants who are
most likely to provide relevant and valuable data. The selection
is based on specific criteria that align with the research
objectives, rather than random sampling or convenience.
• Example: A researcher is conducting a study on the impact of
artificial intelligence (AI) in the automotive industry. Instead of
surveying a random group of people, the researcher uses
judgment sampling to select a small group of AI experts,
automotive engineers, and industry leaders who have significant
experience and insight into the topic.
• A luxury car manufacturer wants to understand the preferences
of high-net-worth individuals regarding a new model. The
marketing team uses judgment sampling to select participants
who are known to have purchased luxury vehicles in the past,
have a high income, and are active in luxury car communities.
 Snowball
Sampling

• I quite like this sampling

technique. Existing
people are asked to
nominate further
people known to them
so that the sample
increases in size like a
rolling snowball. This
method of sampling is
effective when a sampling
frame is difficult to
identify.
 Types of Snowball Sampling

• Linear Snowball Sampling: The formation of a sample group starts with

one individual subject providing information about just one other subject and
then the chain continues with only one referral from one subject. This pattern
is continued until enough number of subjects are available for the sample.
• Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this type, the
first subject is recruited and then he/she provides multiple referrals. Each
new referral then provides with more data for referral and so on, until there
is enough number of subjects for the sample.
• Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this technique, each
subject gives multiple referrals, however, only one subject is recruited from
each referral. The choice of a new subject depends on the nature of the
research study.
 Advantages of Snowball
Sampling
• It’s quicker to find samples: Referrals make it easy and quick to
find subjects as they come from reliable sources. An additional task is
saved for a researcher, this time can be used in conducting the study.
• Cost effective: This method is cost effective as the referrals are
obtained from a primary data source. It’s is convenient and not so
expensive as compared to other methods.
• Sample hesitant subjects: Some people do not want to come
forward and participate in research studies, because they don’t want
their identity to be exposed. Snowball sampling helps for this
situation as they ask for a reference from people known to each
other. There are some sections of the target population which are
hard to contact.
 Disadvantages of Snowball
Sampling

• Sampling bias and margin of error: Since people refer

those whom they know and have similar traits this sampling
method can have a potential sampling bias and
margin of error. This means a researcher might only be able
to reach out to a small group of people and may not be able
to complete the study with conclusive results.
• Lack of cooperation: There are fair chances even after
referrals, people might not be cooperative and refuse to
participate in the research studies.
Sampling error
 • Sampling error
•What
A samplingis
error occurs when the sample used in the study is

a
not representative of the whole population.

samplin
• Sampling errors are statistical errors that arise when a

g error?
sample does not represent the whole population. They are the
difference between the real values of the population and the
values derived by using samples from the population.
 CATEGORIES OF SAMPLING
ERROR
• Population specification error
• Sample frame error
• Selection error
• Nonresponse Error
 Population specification
error:
• Population specification error: Population-specific error occurs when the
researcher incorrectly defines or targets the population from which the sample
is drawn. This leads to the inclusion or exclusion of certain groups that should
or should not be part of the population.
• For example, imagine a research study about kid’s apparel. Who is the right
person to survey? It can be both parents, only the mother, or the child. The
parents make purchase decisions, but the kids may influence their choice.
• A marketing firm conducts a survey to understand consumer preferences for a
new smartphone. However, they mistakenly define the population as "all
adults aged 18-65" when the product is actually intended for young adults aged
18-25.
 Sample frame error:
• Sample frame error: Sample frame error occurs when the sampling
frame (the list or source from which the sample is drawn) does not
accurately represent the entire population. This can lead to certain
groups being underrepresented or overrepresented in the sample.
• For example, picking a sampling frame from the telephone white
pages book may have erroneous inclusions because people shift
their cities.
• Erroneous exclusions occur when people prefer to un-list their
numbers. Wealthy households may have more than one
connection, thus leading to multiple inclusions.
 Selection error:
• Selection error occurs when the method of selecting the sample
leads to certain individuals or groups being more likely to be
included in the sample than others, resulting in a biased sample.
• A selection error occurs when respondents self-select themselves to
participate in the study.
• Only the interested ones respond. You can control selection errors by
going the extra step to request responses from the entire sample.
• Example : A company wants to assess employee satisfaction and
sends surveys only to employees who have been with the company for
more than five years.
 Nonresponse Error:
• Nonresponse error occurs when a significant portion
of the selected sample does not respond to the
survey or study. If the nonrespondents differ in
meaningful ways from those who do respond, the
results may be biased.
• Example : A survey is sent to 1,000 households to
measure public opinion on a new tax policy, but only 300
households respond.
 What is Non-Sampling Error?

• Non-sampling error refers to an error that arises from the

result of data collection, which causes the data to differ
from the true values.
• Non-sampling errors are errors that occur in the data
collection, processing, or analysis phase of a study, rather
than from the act of selecting a sample itself.
 Types of Non-Sampling Error
• 1. Measurement Error
A measurement error refers to all errors relating to the measurement of
each sampling unit, as opposed to errors relating to how they were
selected. The error often arises when there are confusing questions,
low-quality data due to sampling fatigue (i.e., someone is tired of
taking a survey), and low-quality measurement tools.
Example : In a survey about household income, respondents are asked
to report their income but are given a confusing question that leads
them to misunderstand whether to report gross income or net
income.
 Types of Non-Sampling Error
• 2. Processing Error
• Occurs during the data processing phase, such as data entry,
coding, or analysis, leading to inaccuracies in the results.
• Example: A researcher enters survey responses into a database
but accidentally miscodes responses, assigning "2" (neutral)
instead of "5" (very satisfied) on a Likert scale.
• 3. Response Error
• Happens when respondents provide inaccurate, false, or
incomplete answers, either intentionally or unintentionally.
• Example : In a health survey, participants are asked about their
alcohol consumption. Some respondents underreport their
drinking habits due to social desirability bias.
 Types of Non-Sampling Error
• 4. Nonresponse Error
• Occurs when a significant portion of the selected sample does not
respond, leading to bias if the nonrespondents differ from those who
did respond (also a type of sampling error, but it can be considered
under non-sampling when focusing on the nature of the missing data).
• Example: A survey on voter preferences receives low response rates
from younger voters.
• 5. Interviewer error
• Interviewer error occurs when the interviewer (or administrator)
makes an error when recording a response. In qualitative research,
an interviewer may lead a respondent to answer a certain way. In
quantitative research, an interviewer may ask the question in a
different way, which leads to a different end result.