Electronics Engineering

Questions
1. What is telecommunication? Have you done any practical work with it?
Ans:
• “Tele” means far off and “communication” means sharing of information. So
telecommunication refers to the science and technology of communicating
audio, video, or digital information over a distance by means of radio waves,
optical signals etc. along a transmission line.

• A basic telecommunication system consists of three primary units- a

transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal, a transmission
medium also called the "physical channel" that carries the signal, a receiver
that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable
information.
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• Telecommunication can be either wired or wireless. In wired

communication, the channels include optical fibers, coaxial cables etc.
and in wireless communication the channel is free space (atmosphere).
 Questions
2. What is laser? What is maser? What is the principle behind them? What
is the difference?
Ans:
• LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
It is a device which produces monochromatic, coherent, highly intense and
directional beam of visible light called as LASER beam.

• MASER stands for Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation.
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• Principle behind both is stimulated emission of radiation. Stimulated
emission is a quantum effect in which the excited atom is forced to
emit another photon of same energy and in phase with the former and
thus there will be two photons when excited atom returns to the
ground state. Such process of emission in presence of external energy
is called Stimulated emission.

• Difference between LASER and MASER: LASER uses electromagnetic

radiation in visible and near visible range (wavelength 1mm to 10nm).
MASER uses microwaves instead and the wavelength is longer (1mm to
1m).
Since energy of a photon can be calculated by Energy=h (planks constant)
* f (frequency), the energy in a MASER is less than that is LASER all other
things being the same.
 Questions
3. Why is AC transmission preferred to DC? Do you know any place where
transmission is in DC?
Ans:
Advantages of AC transmission over DC: Direct current (DC) is not in use in
any power grid globally. This is because DC is too expensive to deliver over
long distances. DC drops in power over distance, hence not suitable for
power grids. Alternating current (AC) on the other hand is very efficient for
long distances and does not drop in power like the way DC does. Also, you
can step up or step down the voltage with AC current easily which you can't
really do with DC.
 Questions
4. What is a pn junction?
Ans:
When half part of Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge) is doped with p-type
material (trivalent impurity) and half with n-type material (penatavalent
impurity), we get a pn junction diode. The border where p-region meets n-
region is called the pn junction. (Doping is the process of adding impurity to
pure semiconductors).

Examples of penatavalent impurities- Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb),

Phosphorus (P) etc. and examples of trivalent impurities- Indium (In), Boron
(B), Aluminium (Al) etc.
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5. How do you obtain a p-type semi-conductor?
Ans:
When Silicon or Germanium is doped with trivalent impurity such as
Indium, Boron or Aluminium, we get p-type semiconductor.
Working of p-type semiconductor- The trivalent atom has three electrons
in valence orbit. Every trivalent dopant atom shares its three electrons with
three neighbouring Si atoms to form covalent bond. But, the bond between
dopant atom and 4th neighbour has a vacancy. This vacancy is called as hole.
It has tendency to accept any electron in its close vicinity. Hence trivalent
impurity is called as an acceptor impurity. Since it contains holes which are
positively charged, it is called p-type (p stands for positive) semiconductor.
 Questions
6. Carbon is a tetravalent element. Can it doped?
Ans:
Though carbon has 4 valence electrons in its valence shell but the energy gap is very
small, the size of carbon is very small. In case of germanium and silicon they have d
orbits in the outer shell and they have greater mobility. Carbon, in the form of single-
crystal diamond, is used as a semiconductor and can be doped. To make a
semiconductor, some of the carbon atoms in the crystal can be replaced with "dopant"
elements of the right size to fit into the crystal lattice structure while having either
three or five valence electrons to act as acceptors or donors of free electrons wandering
around in the lattice. There are two problems with commercial use of diamond
semiconductors: (1) flawless single-crystal diamond is expensive to make in sizes large
enough for mass production of wafers and (2) getting dopant atoms into the crystal
lattice is difficult.
 Questions
7. What is Electronics? How does it differ from Electrical? Why are we shifting
from analog to digital telephones?
Ans:
The branch of physics and technology concerned with the design of circuits using
transistors and microchips, and concerned with the behavior and movement of
electrons in a semiconductor, conductor, vacuum, or gas is called electronics.
Electronics though it is a child of the electrical engineering, but there is a lot of
difference and though electricity is flow of electrons, electronics has been a separate
branch. Electric engineering deals with the generation of electricity by different means
like hydel, thermal, tidal, with solar power etc. Thus the methodology of production of
electricity, its production by different means , production or manufacturing machines
that use electricity directly , electrical measuring instruments like ammeters, voltmeters
, frequency meters, wattage or energy meters etc. is all electrical engineering and
electronics deals with development and application of devices that use electron flow
mainly.
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We are shifting from analog to digital telephones because analog transmission
requires amplifiers and each amplifier adds distortion and noise to the signal. On
the other hand, digital amplifiers generate an exact signal eliminating errors and
noise. While analog telephones are usually less expensive to manufacture and
purchase, they're also limited by the substantially smaller amount of wave-form
data they are capable of transmitting. Therefore, a primary advantage of digital
telephones is the larger amount of binary code they can transmit. In addition, the
digital variety can also compensate for lost data, leading to increased clarity and
decreased distortion that analog telephones can't match (except under the most
ideal conditions) or surpass.
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8. What is power electronics?
Ans:
Electrical engineering field is divided into three areas- Electronics, Power and
Control. Power electronics involves a combination of these three areas.
Power Electronics deals with the use of electronics for the control and
conversion of large amounts of electrical power. The design of power
electronics equipment involves interaction between the source and the load,
and utilizes small electronic control circuits as well as power semiconductor
devices (examples-SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier), DIAC (Bidirectional Diode
Thyristor), TRIAC (Bidirectional Triode Thyristor), LASCR (Light Activated
SCR) etc).
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9. In an enclosed room, where no exchange of air is allowed will the radio

work?
Ans:
Yes, because radio waves aren't matter waves, that is they aren't made up of
matter (Unlike sound waves which are matter waves and require air or water
to propagate). They are actually one out of many forms of electromagnetic
radiation (x-rays, UV, and visible light are all other examples). Electromagnetic
waves as their name implies propagate through both electric and magnetic
fields. Electric and magnetic fields can exist anywhere, they don't need air or
water for them to propagate through, just space.
 Questions
10. What is modulation? Why modulation? What are the types of
modulation?
Ans:
• Modulation is the process of changing amplitude, frequency or phase of
carrier signal in accordance with the modulating signal.
(Modulating signal is the signal carrying information which is to be transmitted
i.e. it is actually the information signal and it is a low frequency signal. The
carrier signal does not contain any information and it is a very high frequency
signal).
• Alternate definition of modulation- The process of varying any of the
parameters (amplitude, frequency or phase) of high frequency sinusoidal
wave (carrier wave) with respect to the instantaneous value of modulating
signal is known as modulation.
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Need of Modulation-

• To increase the range of communication: Low frequency signals are poor and
get highly attenuated. Hence modulating signals cannot be transmitted directly
over long distances. Modulation efficiently increases the frequency of signal and
hence distance of transmission increases.

• To reduce antenna height: The height of antenna for efficient transmission and
reception of the signal should be quarter wavelength of the signal. As
wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency, wavelength decreases as
frequency increases and hence the height of antenna reduces otherwise the
length is impracticable.
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• Multiplexing of signal: Using modulation, we can send two or more
signals over the same channel at a time.

• To avoid mixing: Modulation avoids mixing of signals as we can

convert the different signals to different portions of electromagnetic
spectrum using different carrier frequencies.

• High quality reception: Modulation techniques like FM (Frequency

Modulation), Delta Modulation (DM), Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
etc. reduce noise in transmission thus facilitating high quality
reception at the receiver.
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11. What are the features of the new chips that Intel is bringing about
(i.e.804) Explain ‘digital multiplexing’.
Ans:
Multiplexing is a set of techniques that allows the simultaneous
transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. In digital
multiplexing, digital signals are multiplexed. It is further classified as FDM
(Frequency Division Multiplexing), TDM (Time Division Multiplexing) and
WDM (Wave Division Multiplexing).
 Questions

12. Do you know about Geiger-Muller counter?

Ans:
Geiger-Muller counter is an electronic instrument that detects and
measures nuclear radiation, such as x-rays or gamma rays. The Geiger
counter consists of a gas-filled tube with a charged electrode connected to
a counter. As radiation passes through the gas it ionizes atoms along its
path. The ions are attracted to the charged electrode, creating pulses of
electric current that are registered by the counter.
 Questions
13. What is OR Gate?
Ans-
It is an electronic circuit which has two or more inputs and one output. It
produces high output when any or all of its inputs are high and produces
low output only when all of its inputs are low. The symbol and truth table
of OR gate is as follows:
 Questions
14. What AND Gate?
Ans:
It is an electronic circuit which has two or more inputs and only one
output. It produces high output only when all of its inputs are high, else
output remains low. The symbol and truth table of AND gate is as follows:
 Questions
15. What is the difference between B&w TV and colour TV? What is C-
DOT? What does it do?
Ans:
The Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) is an Indian Government
owned telecommunications technology development centre. Though it was
established basically for designing and developing digital exchanges, C-DOT has
expanded to develop intelligent computer software applications. Beginning
with digital switching systems, C-DOT has developed products for optical,
satellite and wireless communication from circuit switching technology, ATM
and next generation networks. Later, C-DOT projects included central
monitoring systems for telecom security, for the Indian government.
 Questions
16. What is the principle of a microwave oven?
Ans:
Microwave oven uses microwaves which are small radio waves with frequency
of 2500megahertz. These microwaves are absorbed by water and other
common food items. When micro waves are absorbed by the food items, that
causes intense agitation in the food molecules which in turn causes heating.
This heat aids cooking as desired. So here instead of an external heat source,
the heat is generated inside the food itself by bombarding with microwaves.
Microwaves have another quality that they are not absorbed by plastic, glass or
ceramics. Hence the food containers to be kept for microwave cooking are
made of ceramics, glass and suitable plastics.
 Questions
17. In circuits, have you heard of ‘tree’?
Ans:
Tree is a type of topology (Topology refers to the way a network is laid out).
The central hub is called an active hub. In tree topology, not every device plugs
into the central hub but the majority of devices are connected to secondary
hubs that in turn are connected to central hub. A good example of tree topology
can be seen in cable TV technology where the main cable from main office is
divided into main branches and each branch is divided into small branches and
so on.
 Questions
18. What are interrupts List them according to their priority. What is the
need of interrupts?
Ans:
The method which allows the microprocessor to execute the main program and
stop only to service input device when it is told to do so by the device is called
interrupt method. This method provides an external input that would inform
the processor that it should complete whatever instruction that is currently
being executed and fetch a new routine that will service the requesting device.
Once this servicing is completed, the processor would resume exactly where it
left off. This means that the external device sends an interrupt to
microprocessor when it is ready to exchange information.
 Questions
Types of Interrupts:
• Hardware Interrupts (According • Software Interrupts:
to priority) :  RST 0
 TRAP
 RST 1
 RST 7.5
 RST 3

 RST 6.5  RST 4

 RST 5.5  RST 5

 RST 6
 INTR
 RST 7
 Questions
19. What is EPROM? How is it used?
Ans:
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) is programmable by the
user. They store 1’s and 0’s in the form of charge. The information stored can
be erased by exposing the memory to ultraviolet light which erases the data
stored in all memory locations. For ultraviolet light a quartz window is
provided which is covered during normal operation. Upon erasing it can be
reprogrammed by using EPROM programmer. The advantage is that be
programmed, erased and reprogrammed. The disadvantage is that all the data
gets erased even if you want to change single data bit.
 Questions
20. What are the advantages of IC’s over PCB’s?
Ans:
There are two main advantages of ICs over PCBs: cost and performance. Cost
is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by
photolithography (Photolithography is the process of transferring geometric
shapes on a mask to the surface of a silicon wafer) and not constructed a
transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch quickly
and consume little power, because the components are small and close
together. ICs have consistently migrated to smaller sizes over the years,
allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per
unit area. ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to
create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer
smaller size and lower cost.
 Questions
21. What is K-map?
Ans:
K-map or Karnaugh map is a systematic method for simplifying and
manipulating Boolean expressions. In this technique, the information
contained in a truth table or available in POS (Product Of Sum) or SOP (Sum Of
Product) form is represented on K-map. Although the technique can be used
for any number of variables, it is generally used upto six variables beyond
which it becomes very cumbersome. In an n-variable K-map there are 2n cells
and each cell corresponds to one of the combinations of n variables. For each
minterm and maxterm there is one specific cell.
(Each individual term in standard SOP form is called minterm and that in POS
form is called maxterm)
 Questions
22. What is the use of flip-flop, its representation, etc?
Ans:
Some of the common uses of flip-flops are as follows:
• Bounce elimination switch,
• Latches,
• Registers,
• Counters,
• Memory, etc.
 Questions

23. What is the generic name for T flip-flop?

Ans:
T flip-flop is Toggle flip-flop. In a J-K flip-flop, if J=K the resulting flip-flop is
referred to as T-flip-flop. It has only one input referred to as T-input. IF T=1 it
acts as a toggle switch.
 Questions

24. What is a monostable /astable / bistable multivibrator?

Ans:
Multivibrators: Most digital systems require some kind of timing waveform,
for example, a source of trigger pulses is required for all clocked sequential
circuits. In digital systems, a rectangular waveform is most desirable (unlike
analog systems where sinusoidal signals are often used). The generators of
rectangular waveforms are called multivibrators.
There are three types of multivibrators as follows:
• Astable multivibrator: It is called astable multivibrators because it has no
stable state. It has two quasi-stable states and does not require any
triggering; hence it is referred to as free-running multivibrator.
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• Monostable multivibrator: It has one stable state and one quasi-stable
state. It is also called as pulse stretcher since it can generate a relatively long
pulse from a narrow pulse.

• Bistable multivibrator: It is called bistable multivibrator because both the

states are stable states. This circuit makes transition from one stable state
to another only when a triggering pulse is applied.

(When circuit is in stable state, its output is fixed i.e. it is either high or low and
it goes to other state only when it is triggered by externally applied pulse.
When circuit is in quasi-stable state, it recovers back to the stable state without
any external triggering pulse.)
 Questions
25. How is an I.C. manufactured and tested?
Ans: I.C. manufacturing involves following steps:
• Fabrication: Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which
includes these key process steps:
Imaging
Deposition
Etching
• Packaging: Initially, ICs were packaged in ceramic flat packs but quickly
moved to dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic.
Other packaging methods are pin grid array (PGA), leadless chip carrier
(LCC), plastic quad flat pack (PQFP), thin small-outline package (TSOP), Ball
grid array (BGA), System In Package (SIP) etc.
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• Chip labeling and manufacturing date: Most integrated circuits

include identifying information including four common sections: the
manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production batch
number and/or serial number, and a four-digit code that identifies
when the chip was manufactured. The manufacturing date is
commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit
week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured
in week 41 of 1983,
 Questions

26. What is a ‘thyristor’? How is it different from a diode?

Ans:
Thyristor is a general name given to a family of power semiconductor
switching devices all of which are characterized by a bistable switching action
depending upon PNPN regenerative feedback. It consists of four or more layers
and three or more junctions which can be switched from OFF state (blocking
state) to ON state (conducting state) or vice versa (The SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier) is almost universally referred to as thyristor). Diode has only two
layers and one junction. Diode is on i.e. it conducts in forward bias condition
but thyristor has to be triggered by a DC gate signal or by ac gate signal or by
pulse gate signal to turn it on.
 Questions

27. How does a music system work? What is the role of an amplifier etc?
Ans:
Any music system works on two basic principles-transduction and
amplification. Transduction is the process of converting energy from one
form into another. The two types of transducers we will deal with are
microphones (which convert acoustical energy into electrical energy) and
speakers (which convert electrical energy into acoustical energy).
Amplification is a process by which a signal is taken and its power is
increased (i.e. its amplitude is increased).
 Questions
Process:
• The process begins with a sound source (such as a human voice), which
creates waves of sound (acoustical energy).
• These waves are detected by a transducer (microphone), which converts
them to electrical energy.
• The electrical signal from the microphone is very weak, and must be fed to
an amplifier before anything serious can be done with it.
• The loudspeaker converts the electrical signal back into sound waves, which
are heard by human ears.
 Questions
28. Name a voltage-regulating device. On what principle does it work?
Ans:
Zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator. A voltage regulator is a device
that maintains a relatively constant output voltage even though its input
voltage may be highly variable.

Principle: Zener diode is intentionally manufactured to operate in breakdown

region. Its forward bias characteristics is same as that of p-n junction diode. In
reverse bias, initially a small current flows called reverse saturation current
but as voltage reaches at zener breakdown voltage, current increases rapidly
and voltage remains constant. Thus in breakdown region, zener acta as voltage
regulator.
 Questions
29. Draw a voltage comparator circuit. Why did you use an op-amp for it?
Ans:
A voltage comparator is a circuit which compares the signal voltage applied to
one of the inputs and produces either a high or low output voltage depending
on which input is higher.
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A comparator output has two voltages, either high or low. When the non-
inverting voltage is larger than inverting voltage (V1>V2), the output is high.
The output is low if non-inverting voltage is less than inverting voltage
(V1<V2). If inverting terminal is grounded, reference voltage becomes ground
potential for the comparator. In this case Vin (input voltage at non-inverting
terminal) is compared with ground potential. If Vin>0, output is +Vsat and if
Vin<0, output is - Vsat ( Vsat is saturation voltage of op-amp).
 Questions
30. Name some insulators. Describe, using the atomic structure, how an
element becomes a conductor or an insulator.
Ans:
An element is classified as insulator or conductor on the basis of band
structure. In case of insulator, forbidden energy gap is large. Due to this
electron cannot jump from valence band to conduction band. In insulators, the
valence electron is tightly bound to parent atom and the transfer of electron
from V.B. to C.B. requires high activation energy equal to several thousands of
degree. Insulators have very low conductivity and very high resistivity of the
order of 107 ohm-meters. Examples: plastic, rubber, ceramic etc.
In case of conductors, there is no forbidden band. Hence V.B. and C.B. overlap
each other. Here large number of electrons are available for conduction. The
electrons in V.B. are free to enter in C.B. The conductivity of conductor is very
high even at room temperature.
 Questions
31. Tell me the important elements of any power system.
Answer:
The three main elements of power system are as follows:
• Generators: The device converts mechanical energy to electrical energy is
called a generator.

• Transmission Lines: The equipment connecting the generated electrical

energy from the generation to the distribution system is the transmission
line. A transmission system is a massive interconnected network consists of
mainly AC transmission lines with various high/extra high voltage levels.
The main advantage of having higher voltage in transmission system is to
reduce the losses.
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• Transformers: The main functions of transformers are stepping up

voltages from the lower generation levels to the higher transmission
voltage levels and stepping down voltages from the higher
transmission voltage levels to the lower distribution voltage levels.
 Questions
32. What is super-conductivity? What is the latest development in this?
Ans:
Superconductivity is the property of some materials to conduct electricity with
no resistance. Such materials are called superconductors. Thus a
superconductor can carry a current indefinitely without losing any energy.
They also have several other very important properties, such as the fact that no
magnetic field can exist within a superconductor.
To this day, the largest successful applications of superconductors remains the
powerful electromagnets used in Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) system
and research magnets, and the RF accelerator cavities used in high energy
physics experiments. Power utilities, electronics companies, the military,
transportation, and theoretical physics have all benefited strongly from the
discovery of these materials.
 Questions
33. Draw and explain a full wave and half wave rectifier.
Ans:
A half wave rectifier is one which converts AC voltage into pulsating DC voltage
using one half cycle of applied AC voltage. The basic circuit arrangement of
HWR is as follows:
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A HWR contains power transformer to step up or step down the input voltage,
a unidirectional diode D and load resistor R. For positive half cycle of applied
ac voltage, diode D is forward biased and hence conducts. Now current flows
and appears across the load. For negative half cycle, diode D is reverse bias and
hence it does not conduct. So no current flows through circuit and output is
zero for negative half cycle.
A full wave rectifier conducts during both negative and positive half cycle of
input ac supply. In order to rectify both the half cycles, two diodes are used.
The circuit diagram of FWR is as follows:
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During positive half cycle D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse bias. Hence D1
conducts and causes a current to flow through load R. During negative half
cycle, D2 is forward bias and D1 is reverse bias. Hence D2 conducts and current
flows through load R. Thus both the ac input cycles are rectified.
 Questions
34. How do you convert A.C to D.C? What are the uses of rectification?
Ans:
A.C. is converted to D.C. using a rectifier first and then a filter.
Rectification is the process of converting ac voltage to pulsating dc voltage
(Actually rectifier is required to produce pure dc but its output is pulsating dc
i.e. it contains ac as well as dc components. The ac component is undesirable
and must be kept away from load hence filter is used after rectifier to remove
the ac component and allow only dc to reach the load).
 Questions
35. What is a resistor?

Ans:
The opposition to the flow of electrons or electric current is known as
resistance. The materials providing resistance are called resistors. Resistor is a
passive electronic component and is used in many electronic circuits to limit
the current, to drop the voltage and to divide the voltage.
 Questions
36. What does a modem do? How?
Ans:
Modem stands for modulator/demodulator. A modulator converts a digital
signal to analog signal using ASK (Amplitude Shift Keying), FSK (Frequency
Shift Keying), PSK (Phase Shift Keying) or QAM (Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation).

(Digital to analog conversion is the process of changing amplitude, frequency

or phase of analog signal to represent digital 1s and 0s. So in ASK, amplitude of
carrier is varied, in FSK, frequency of carrier is varied, in PSK, phase is varied
and in QAM, both amplitude and phase are varied to represent digital signal.)
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A demodulator converts an analog signal to digital signal. While a

demodulator resembles an analog to digital converter, it is not in fact a
converter of any kind. It does not sample (Sampling is the process of
converting Analog signal to digital signal) a signal to create a digital
facsimile, it merely reverses the process of modulation that is it performs
demodulation.
 Questions
37. What is the difference between analog and digital transmission?
Ans:
Both data and signals that represent them can take either analog or digital
form. Analog refers to something that is continuous-a set of specific points of
data and all possible points between. Digital refers to something that is
discrete-a set of specific points of data with no other points in between. Thus
an analog signal is a continuous wave form that changes smoothly over time. As
wave moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes all values
along its path. An example of analog data is sine wave. A digital signal, on the
other hand, is discrete. It can take only a limited number of defined values
often as simple as 1 and 0.
 Questions
38. What are transponders?

Ans:
A transponder is the series of interconnected units which forms a single
communication channel between the receiving and transmitting antenna in a
communication satellite. In air navigation or radio frequency identification, a
transponder is a device that emits an identifying signal in response to an
interrogating received signal. In a communications satellite, a transponder
gathers signals over a range of uplink frequencies and re-transmits them on a
different set of downlink frequencies to receivers on Earth, often without
changing the content of the received signal or signals.
 Questions
39. What is VLSI?
Ans:
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating integrated
circuits by combining thousands of transistors into a single chip. This field
involves packing more and more logic devices into smaller and smaller areas.

40. How does a transistor work?

Ans:
A transistor has two pn junctions; one junction in forward bias has low
resistance and other in reverse bias has high resistance. A transistor is
basically a silicon or germanium crystal containing three separate regions. It
can be either NPN or PNP type. The middle region is called base and outer two
regions are emitter and collector.
 Questions
Working of NPN transistor:

In the N-Type emitter the majority carriers are free electrons. So, negative
terminal of Vee repels the electron of emitter and positive plate of Vcc battery
attracts the electron emitted by emitter. So, electron starts moving from
emitter to collector. So, while their motion from emitter to collector electron
pass through base region and where some of electron may recombine
with holes roughly 5% of the electrons emitted by emitter recombine with
holes in base region 95% of electrons are able to reach at collector which
produces current in the N-P-N Transistor.
 Questions
Working of PNP transistor:

In the P-Type emitter the majority carriers are the free holes. So, positive
terminal of Vee repels the holes of the emitter and negative plate of Vcc battery
attract the holes emitted by the emitter. So, holes starts moving from emitter to
collector. So, while their motion from emitter to collector holes will pass
through base region and where some of holes may recombine with
electron roughly 5% of the holes emitted by emitter recombine with electron in
base region and 95% of holes are able to reach at collector which produce
current in P-N-P transistor.
 Questions

41. What is MSI and LSI?

Ans:
Large Scale Integration (LSI) uses circuits containing electronic components
numbering in thousands per chip. Medium scale integration (MSI) is an
integrated circuit that contains between 30 and 1,000 electronic components
on a single chip.
 Questions
42. What is susceptance?
Ans:
Susceptance (symbolized B ) is an expression of the ease with which
alternating current ( AC ) passes through a capacitance or inductance. In
electrical engineering, inverse of impedance is admittance which is given by

• Where Y is the admittance, measured in siemens (a.k.a. mho, the inverse of

ohm).
• G is the conductance, measured in siemens.
• j is the imaginary unit, and
• B is the susceptance, measured in siemens.
 Questions
43. A certain fiber-optic cable has the following characteristics: n1 = 1.82 and
n2 = 1.73. What is the value of θc?

A.71.90º B.0.95º
C.18.1º D.1.81º

44. In order for a light ray to propagate along a fiber-optic cable, what must the
relationship be between the angle of incidence and the critical angle?

A. θi >θc B. θi <θc
C. θi = θc D. none of the above
 Questions
45. Light may be propagated along a fiber-optic cable in which of the following
modes?

A. multimode step index B. single-mode step index

C. multimode graded index D. all of the above

46. In AM, the carrier is changed by a modulating signal. What parameter of the
carrier is changed?

A. Amplitude B. Frequency
C. Pulse width D. Phase
 Questions
47. What does VCO stand for?
A. Visually-Controlled Organization
B. Voltage-Controlled Oscillator
C. Voltage-Centered Oscilloscope

48. The output spectrum of a ________ modulator includes upper-side and

lower-side frequencies and the carrier frequency.
A. Balanced
B. Standard amplitude
C. None of the above
 Questions
49. Amplitude modulation is a ________ process.

A. Multiplication B. division
C. sum/difference D. [NIL]

50. Phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback circuit consisting of a

A. Phase detector. B. Low-pass filter.

C. VCO. D. All of the above

 Questions

51. Can u explain working of Stepper Motor Interfacing?

Ans:
There are actually many ways you to interface a stepper motor to
microcontroller, out of them the most used interfaces are:
• Interface using L293D - H-Bridge Motor Driver
• Interface using ULN2003/2004 - Darlington Arrays
 Questions
• Connecting Unipolar stepper using L293D:

As you see in the circuit above the four pins "Controller pin 1",2,3
and 4 will control the motion and direction of the stepper motor
according to the step sequence programmed in the controller.
 Questions
• Connecting Unipolar stepper using ULN2003/2004:

As already discussed in case of L293D, Here in this circuit too the four
pins "Controller pin 1",2,3 and 4 will control the motion and direction
of the stepper motor according to the step sequence sent by the
controller.
 Questions
• Connecting Bipolar Stepper Motor:

As we have studied that, Bi-polar stepper motors has 2 different coils. The step
sequence for Bipolar stepper motor is same as that of unipolar stepper motors.
The driving circuit for this require an H-Bridge as it allows the polarity of the
power applied to be controlled independently. This can be done as shown in
the figure below:
 Questions
52. Draw the VI characteristics of Diode?
Ans:
The VI characteristics of the diode in reverse and forward bias are as follows:
 Questions
VI characteristics is the graph between voltage across the diode (V) and
current through the diode (I).

Forward characteristics: In forward bias when small voltage is applied which

is less than the barrier potential (or cut in voltage (Vd) which is 0.7V for Si
diode and 0.3V for Ge diode), the current does not flow but it increases very
rapidly beyond the barrier potential as shown in diagram.

Reverse characteristics: When the diode is reverse biased, there is no

crossing of majority carriers and current is approximately zero. A very small
current flows which is called reverse saturation current. When reverse voltage
reaches breakdown voltage (Vbr), large reverse current flows which may
damage the diode. This region is called breakdown region.
THANK YOU