Electronic

Devices &
Circuits
 Introduction to
Electronics
Types of Electricity
Two forms of electricity Static
and
Produced
Static Electricity is an electrical
charge at rest.
Produced Electricity is
produced by either magnetism,
chemicals, light, heat, or
pressure.
 Introduction to
Electronics

The study of electronics can be

broken
down into four basic steps:
•Step 1 – Basic Electricity
•Step 2 – Electronic Components
•Step 3 – Electronic Circuits
•Step 4 – Electronic Systems
 Step 1: Basics of
• Step 1: Electricity
Basics of
Electricity
• Current – Andre’
Ampere’
• Voltage – Alessandro
Volta
Andre’
Ampere’ • Resistance – George
Ohm Power
Current

• Power – James Watt Resistance

Georg Ohm
Alessandro Voltag
Volta James Watt
e
Step 2: Electronic
Components
• Step 2: Electronic Components
Switches and Keyboard
Semiconductors
Transducers Resistors
Capacitors

Nikola Electron
Tesla Tubes
Magnetic

Power
Current
Thomas Edison Voltag Resistance
e
 Step 3: Electronic
Circuits
• Step 3: Electronic
Circuits
• Signal Generators and
Timers
• Amplifiers
Charles Wheatstone
• Digital Circuits
• Power Supplies
• Detectors and Mixers
• Filters
Components

• Phase-locked Looks
• Converters
Gustav Kirchoff
• Data Acquisition Power

Current
• Synthesizers Resistance
Votlage

Robert Noyce
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Communications
• Computers
• Consumer
• Industrial
• Test and
Measurement Circuits
Component
• Biomedical s

Power
Current
Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
Communications
•
Systems
Radio
Telecommunicati
ons Television

Heinrich Hertz
Data
Communications

Commun tio
Systems

Circuits

Components

Guglielmo Marconi
Power
Current
Lee Deforest John Baird Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Computers
Data Terminals
Computer Systems
George Boole
Data Storage
Input/Output Devices

John von Neuman Computers

Com unicatio

Systems
Circuits
Components

Power

Alan Turing Current

Charles Babbage Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Consumer
Video Equipment Audio
Equipment Personal
Automobile Electronics
William Shockley

nsumer
Co
uters

Communication

Systems
Jack Kilby Circuit
Components

Power
Nolan Bushnell Current
Chester Carlson
Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Industrial
Manufacturing Equipment
Computer-Aided-Design
and Engineering CAD/CAE
In strial
Charles Steinmetz
Management

Consumer

Comput rs

Communication

Systems
Circuits
Werner Von Components
Siemens Carl Gauss

Power
Current
James Joule Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Test and Measurement
General Test and
Measurement Equipment
Industrial
Automated Test Systems
Test easur nt
Sir Isaac Newton
and
Consumer

Computers

Circuits Systems
RAdm Grace Harper
Components

Power
Benjamin Franklin
Current
John Napier Votlage Resistance
 Step 4: Electronic
Systems
• Biomedical
Patient Care
trial
Diagnostics
Luigi Galvani Te

ment

Co rs Biome
dical
Communication
Henry Cavendish
nsumer
Systems
Circuits
Compone
nts
Sir John Fleming

Power
Current
Votlage Resistance
 Chapter 1
Introduction to
Electronics
 The Bohr atom

The Bohr atom is useful for visualizing atomic

structure.

•The nucleus is positively charged

and has the protons and
neutrons.
•Electrons are negatively
charged and in discrete shells.
•The atomic number is the
number of protons and
determines the particular
element.
•In the neutral atom, the number
of electrons is equal to the Electron Proton Neutron
number of protons.
 The valence shell

The outer shell is called the valence shell. Electrons in

this shell are involved in chemical reactions and they
account for electrical and thermal conductivity in
metals.

A neutral Si atom is shown. There

are
4 electrons in the valence shell.
+ Shell 1 Shell 2 Shell 3

Is Si a conductor, insulator,
or
semiconductor?
Semiconductor
 The valence shell

Metals have one, two or three electrons in the valence

shell. The atom illustrated here is a sodium atom (Na),
with only one electron in its outer shell.

Sodium is highly reactive, and easily gives up its single valence

electron. For this reason, it is not used in electrical work.

+ S he l l 1 S he l l 2 S he l l 3

Non-metals have either

complete or nearly compete
outer shells, so they make
poor electrical conductors. Sodium atom
 Electrons and
Energy Levels

Shells
Electrons near the nucleus have less
energy than those in more distant
orbits.
Only discrete (separate and distinct)
values of electron energies exist within
atomic structures.
In an atom, the orbits are grouped into
energy levels known as Shells.
A given atom has a fixed number of
shells. Each shell has a fixed maximum
number of electrons.The shells (energy
levels) are designated 1, 2, 3, and so
Electrons and
Shells
 Electrons and
Shells
Max. # of Electrons in
Each Shell

Valence Electrons.
This outermost shell is known as the
valence shell and electrons in this
shell are called valence electrons.
Ionizati
If a valence electron acquires a
on
sufficient amount of energy,
called ionization energy, it
can actually escape from the
outer shell and the atom’s
influence.
The departure of a valence
electron leaves a previously
neutral atom with an excess of
positive charge (more protons
than electrons).
The process of losing a valence
 The Quantum
Each
Model
shell or energy level
consists of up to four subshells
called orbitals, which are
designated s, p, d, and f.
Orbital s can hold a maximum of
two electrons, orbital p can hold
six electrons, orbital d can hold
ten electrons, and orbital f can
hold fourteen electrons.
The Quantum
Model
The Quantum
Model
 Materials Used In
Electronics
Insulators
An insulator is a material that does
not conduct electrical current under
normal conditions.
Most good insulators are compounds
rather than single-element materials
and have very high resistivities.
Valence electrons are tightly bound
to the atoms; therefore, there are
very few free electrons in an
insulator.
Examples of insulators are rubber,
plastics, glass, mica, and quartz.
 Materials Used In
Electronics
Conductors
A conductor is a material that easily
conducts electrical current.
Most metals are good conductors.
The best conductors are single-
element materials, such as copper
(Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and
aluminum (Al), which are characterized
by atoms with only one valence
electron very loosely bound to the
atom.
 Materials Used In
Electronics
Semiconductors
A semiconductor is a material that is
between conductors and insulators in
its ability to conduct electrical current.
A semiconductor in its pure (intrinsic)
state is neither a good conductor nor a
good insulator.
Single-element semiconductors are
antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), astatine
(At), boron (B), polonium (Po),
tellurium (Te), silicon (Si), and
germanium (Ge).
 Materials Used In
Electronics
Semiconductors
Compound semiconductors such as
gallium arsenide, indium phosphide,
gallium nitride, silicon carbide, and
silicon germanium are also commonly
used.
The single-element semiconductors
are characterized by atoms with four
valence electrons.
Silicon is the most commonly used
semiconductor.
 Band
Gap
Valence shell of an atom
represents a band of energy
levels and that the valence
electrons are confined to that
band.
When an electron acquires
enough additional energy, it can
leave the valence shell, become
a free electron, and exist in what
is known as the conduction band.
The difference in energy between
Band
Gap
Comparis
on
Semi-Conductor Atom vs
Conductor Atom
 The core includes everything except
the valence electrons.
 The core of the silicon atom has a net
charge of 4 (14 protons 10 electrons)
 The core of the copper atom has a net
charge of 1 (29 protons 28 electrons)
Comparis
on
 Silicon &
Germanium
 Silicon &
Germanium
Both Silicon and Germanium
have the characteristic Four
Valence electrons.
 The valence electrons in Germanium
are in the fourth shell while those in
Silicon are in the third shell, closer to
the nucleus
 Germanium valence electrons are at
higher energy levels than those in
silicon
 Germanium more unstable at high
temperatures and results in excessive
Covalent
Bonds
Silicon
Crystal
 Current In
Semiconductors
Energy band diagram for an
unexcited atom in a pure
(intrinsic) silicon crystal.
Conduction Electrons and
Holes
Conduction Electrons and
Hole Holes
When an electron jumps to the
conduction band, a vacancy is left in
the valence band within the crystal.
Electron-Hole Pair
For every electron raised to the
conduction band by external energy,
there is one hole left in the valence
band, creating what is called an
electron-hole pair.
Recombination
occurs when a conduction-band
electron loses energy and falls back
Conduction Electrons and
Holes
 Electron and Hole
Current

When a voltage is applied across a piece

of intrinsic silicon, the thermally
generated free electrons in the
conduction band, which are free to move
randomly in the crystal structure, are now
easily attracted toward the positive end.
This movement of free electrons is one
type of current in a semiconductive
Electron and Hole
Current
 N-type And P-type
Semiconductors
Doping
Since semiconductors are generally
poor conductors, their conductivity can
be drastically increased by the
controlled addition of impurities to the
intrinsic (pure) semiconductive
material.
This process increases the number of
current carriers (electrons or holes).
The two categories of impurities are
n-type and
p-type.
 N-Type
Semiconductor
To increase the number of
conduction- band electrons in
intrinsic silicon, pentavalent
impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with five
valence electrons such as
arsenic (As), phosphorus (P),
bismuth (Bi), and antimony (Sb).
 N-Type
Semiconductor

Donor Atom
 Majority and Minority
 Since mostCarriers
of the current carriers are
electrons, silicon (or germanium)
doped with pentavalent atoms is an
n-type semiconductor (the n stands
for the negative charge on an
electron).The electrons are called the
majority carriers in n-type
material.
 Although the majority of current
carriers in n- type material are
electrons, there are also a few holes
that are created when electron- hole
pairs are thermally generated. These
 P-Type
Semiconductor
To increase the number of holes
in intrinsic silicon, trivalent
impurity atoms are added.
These are atoms with three
valence electrons such as boron
(B), indium (In), and gallium
(Ga).
 P-Type
Semiconductor

Acceptor Atom
 The PN
Junction
When you take a block of silicon
and dope part of it with a
trivalent impurity and the other
part with a pentavalent
impurity, a boundary called the
PN junction is formed between
the resulting p-type and n-type
portions.
 The PN
Junction
 The PN
Junction
 Formation of the
Depletion Region
 When the pn junction is formed, the n
region loses free electrons as they
diffuse across the junction.
 This creates a layer of positive
charges (pentavalent ions) near the
junction. As the electrons move
across the junction, the p region
loses holes as the electrons and holes
combine.
 This creates a layer of negative
charges (trivalent ions) near the
junction.These two layers of positive
Energy Diagrams of
the PN
Junction
Energy Diagrams of
the PN
Junction
 Chapter 2
Diodes &
Applications
 The
Diode
A diode is made from a small
piece of semiconductor material,
usually silicon, in which half is
doped as a p region and half is
doped as an n region with a pn
junction and depletion region in
between.
 Diode
Packages
Forward
Bias

Forward bias is the condition

that allows current through
the pn junction.
 Forward
Bias
Requirements
Negative side of VBIAS is connected to
the n region of the diode and the
positive side is connected to the p
region.
VBIAS >>> Barrier Potential
Effect of Forward Bias
on the Depletion
Region
 As more electrons flow into the
depletion region, the number of
positive ions is reduced.
 As more holes effectively flow into
the depletion region on the other
side of the pn junction, the number
of negative ions is reduced.
 This reduction in positive and
negative ions during forward bias
causes the depletion region to
narrow
 -
cont
.
 Barrier
 Potential
When forward bias is applied, the
free electrons are provided with
enough energy from the bias-
voltage source to overcome the
barrier potential and cross the
depletion region.
 The energy that the electrons
require in order to pass through the
depletion region is equal to the
barrier potential.
 This energy loss results in a voltage
drop across the pn junction equal to
the barrier potential (0.7 V)
 Reverse
Bias
Reverse bias is the condition
that essentially prevents current
through the diode.
 -
continue
d
 Reverse
Current
The extremely small current that
exists in reverse bias after the
transition current dies out is
caused by the minority carriers
in the n and p regions that are
produced by thermally
generated electron-hole pairs.
V-I Characteristic of a
Diode
 V-I Characteristic of a
Diode
Point A corresponds to a zero-
bias condition.
Point B corresponds to where the
forward voltage is less than the
barrier potential of 0.7 V.
Point C corresponds to where the
forward voltage approximately
equals the barrier potential.
V-I Characteristic for
Reverse Bias
The Complete V-I
Characteristic
Curve
 Diode
Approximations
The Ideal Diode
Model
 Diode
Approximations
The Ideal Diode
Model
 Diode
Approximations
 Since the barrier potential and the
forward dynamic resistance are
neglected, the diode is assumed to
have a zero voltage across it when
forward-biased
 VF = 0 V
 Forward Current

 Reverse Current Neglected

 Diode
Approximation
Practical Diode
Model
 Diode
Approximation
Practical Diode
Model
 Diode
Approximation
Practical Diode
Model

Applying
KVL
 Diode
Approximation
Complete Diode
Model
 Diode
Approximation
Complete Diode
Model
 Diode
Approximation
Complete Diode
Model
Formulas
Example
2-1
Soluti
on
Soluti
on
 Half-wave
Rectifiers
Because of their ability to
conduct current in one direction
and block current in the other
direction, diodes are used in
circuits called rectifiers that
convert ac voltage into dc
voltage.
Rectifiers are found in all dc
power supplies that operate
from an ac voltage source.
Half-wave
Rectifiers
 Half-wave
Rectifiers
The rectifier converts the ac
input voltage to a pulsating dc
voltage.
The rectifier converts the ac
input voltage to a pulsating dc
voltage.
The regulator is a circuit that
maintains a constant dc voltage
for variations in the input line
voltage or in the load.
Half-Wave Rectifier
Operation
 Half-wave
Rectifier
Average Value of the Half-
Wave Output Voltage

Example 2-2
Effect of Potential
Barrier
 Transformer
Coupling
It allows the source voltage to be
stepped down as needed.
The ac source is electrically
isolated from the rectifier, thus
preventing a shock hazard in the
secondary circuit.
 Transformer
Coupling
Turns Ratio = N / N
sec pri

Turns Ratio > 1  Step Up

Turns Ratio < 1  Step
Down
Secondary Voltage of
Transformer

Example 2-4 (Do it by

yourself)
 Full-wave
Rectifiers
A full-wave rectifier allows
unidirectional (one-way) current
through the load during the
entire 360o of the input cycle.
 Full-wave
Rectifier
Example
2-5
Center-Tapped Full-Wave
Rectifier Operation
Operati
on
Effect of the Turns Ratio
on the Output Voltage
Effect of the Turns Ratio
on the Output Voltage
Bridge Full-wave
Rectification
 Bridge Full-wave
Rectification

…

Example 2-7
 Peak Inverse
Voltage
For rectifier applications, peak
inverse voltage (PIV) or
peak reverse voltage (PRV)
is the maximum value
of reverse voltage which
occurs at the peak of the
input cycle when the diode is
reverse-biased.
Power Supply Filters &
Regulators
A power supply filter ideally
eliminates the fluctuations in the
output voltage of a half-wave or
full-wave rectifier and produces
a constant-level dc voltage.
A voltage regulator prevents
changes in the filtered dc
voltage due to variations in
input voltage or load.
Power Supply Filters &
Regulators

The small amount of

fluctuation in the filter output
voltage is called Ripple.
Capacitor-Input
Filter
Capacitor-Input
Filter
Capacitor-Input
Filter
Capacitor-Input
Filter
 Ripple
Voltage
Example
2-8
Soluti
on
 Voltage
Regulators
 Percent
Regulation
The line regulation specifies
how much change occurs in the
output voltage for a given
change in the input voltage.
It is typically defined as a ratio of
a change in output voltage for a
corresponding change in the
input voltage expressed as a
percentage.
 Percent
Regulation
The load regulation specifies
how much change occurs in the
output voltage over a certain
range of load current values,
usually from minimum current
(no load, NL) to maximum
current (full load, FL).
Example
2-9
 Diode Limiters &
Clampers
Diode circuits, called limiters or
clippers, are sometimes used to
clip off portions of signal
voltages above or below certain
levels.
Another type of diode circuit,
called a clamper, is used to add
or restore a dc level to an
electrical signal.
 Diode
Limiters
 Diode
Limiters

Example 2-10
(do it)
 Biased
Limiters
 Diode
Clampers
A Clamper adds a dc level to an ac
voltage.
Operation
During the negative half cycle of the input
signal, the diode conducts and acts like a
short circuit.The output voltage Vo  0 volts
.
The capacitor is charged to the peak value
of input
voltage Vm. and it behaves like a battery.
During the positive half of the input signal,
the diode does not conduct and acts as an
open circuit.
Hence the output voltage V V + V
 Diode
Clampers

 If
the RC time constant is 100 times the
period, the clamping action is excellent. An
RC time constant of ten times the period will
have a small amount of distortion at the
The Diode
Datasheet
 Chapter 3
Special Purpose
Diodes
 The Zener
Diode
A Zener diode is a Silicon pn
junction device that is designed
for operation in the reverse-
breakdown region.
The breakdown voltage of a
Zener diode is set by carefully
controlling the doping level
during manufacture.
 V-I
Characteristics
 Zener
Breakdown
Zener diodes are designed to
operate in reverse breakdown.
Two types of reverse breakdown
in a zener diode are
 avalanche and
 Zener
The avalanche effect, occurs in
both rectifier and Zener diodes
at a sufficiently high reverse
voltage.
 Zener
Breakdown
Occurs in a zener diode at low
reverse voltages
A zener diode is heavily doped to
reduce the breakdown voltage.
This causes a very thin depletion
region.
As a result, an intense electric
field exists within the depletion
region.
Near the zener breakdown
voltage (VZ), the field is intense
 Breakdown
Characteristics
 Breakdown
Characteristics
As the reverse voltage (V ) is
R
increased, the reverse current (IR)
remains extremely small up to the
“knee” of the curve.
 The reverse current is also called the
zener current, IZ.
At this point, the breakdown effect
begins; the internal zener resistance,
also called zener impedance (ZZ),
begins to decrease as the reverse
current increases rapidly.
From the bottom of the knee, the
zener breakdown voltage (VZ)
 Zener
Regulation
A zener diode operating in
breakdown acts as a voltage
regulator because it maintains a
nearly constant voltage across
its terminals over a specified
range of reverse-current values.
The zener diode maintains a
nearly constant voltage across
its terminals for values of
reverse current ranging from IZK
to IZM.
Zener Equivalent
Circuits
Zener Equivalent
Circuits
 Zener Equivalent
Zener
Circuits
Impedence
Example
3-1
 Temperature
The
Coefficient
temperature coefficient
specifies the percent change in
zener voltage for each degree
Celsius change in temperature.

where VZ is the nominal zener

voltage at 25oC the reference
temperature of TC is the
temperature coefficient, and ∆T is
the change in temperature from
the reference temperature.
Example
3-2
 Zener Power
Dissipation and
Derating
Power Dissipation

Power
Derating
Example
3-3
 Zener Diode
Applications
Zener Regulation with a Variable Input
Voltage
Zener diode regulators can provide a
reasonably constant dc level at the
output, but they are not particularly
efficient.
For this reason, they are limited to
pplications that require only low
current to the load.
Zener Diode
Applications
 Zener Diode
Applications
Zener Regulation with a
Variable Load
 Zener
Limiter
In addition to voltage regulation
applications, Zener diodes can be
used in ac applications to limit
voltage swings to desired levels.
Zener Limiter
 a zener(a)
used to limit the positive
peakof a signal voltage to the
selected zener voltage. During the
negative alternation, the zener acts
as a forward-biased diode and limits
the negative voltage to -0.7 V.
Zener Limiter
(b)zener is turned around
 When the
the negative peak is limited by
zener action and the positive
voltage is limited to +0.7 V.
Zener Limiter
(c)
 Two back-to-back zeners limit both
peaks to the zener voltage.
 During the positive alternation, D1 is
2

functioning as the zener limiter and

D2 is functioning as a forward-
1

biased diode.
 During the negative alternation, the
roles are reversed.
Assignm
ent