Course Name-Computer Networks

Course Code- COM-502

Topic – Digital to digital conversion

Model Institute of
Engineering & Technology
Course Outcomes

Course Description Mapping with Program

Outcomes Outcomes and Program
Specific Outcomes

CO1 Articulate the fundamental concepts in computer networks and 1,2,3,5,9,11,12

justify their layered implementation.

CO2 Appreciate the challenges involved and available protocols for 1,2,3,5,9,10,11,12
facilitating low-level data communication.

CO3 Analyze the design issues in ensuring error free data 1,2,3,4,5,9,10,11,12
construction, deconstruction and transmission across devices.

CO4 Justify the application of appropriate routing algorithms in 1,2,3,4,5,8,9,10,11,12

different scenarios based on through understanding of prevalent
routing algorithms

CO5 Articulate the role of higher network layers in the OSI models 1,2,3,4,5,9,10,12
and the working of common network Applications.
Assessment and Evaluation Plan

• Assessment Tools: • Evaluation:

✔ Assignments • Internal- 50 Marks
✔ Sessionals ✔ A1- 10 marks
✔ Tutorials ✔ A2- 10 marks
✔ Quiz ✔ S1- 10 marks
✔ Solving examples ✔ S2- 10 marks
✔ Attendance- 10 marks
• External Exam- 100 marks
Course Outcome 1-Delivery Plan
Course Topics Blooms Taxonomy
Outcomes

Line Coding Analysing, Evaluating

Unipolar, Polar and Bipolar Coding Scheme Understanding, Analysing

Multilevel and Multitransition Coding Scheme Understanding, Analysing

CO1, CO2

Block Coding Understanding

Scrambling Understanding
Outcomes of Today’s Lecture

•Understand the representation of digital data by using digital signal.

•Classify the different line coding schemes.
•Understand the concept of block coding and scrambling.
 Introduction

• In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by using digital
signals.
• The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block coding, and
scrambling.
• Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not
be needed.
 Line coding

• Converting a string of 1’s and 0’s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that
denote the 1’s and 0’s.
• For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a “1” and a low voltage
level (0 or -V) could represent a “0”.
Mapping Data symbols onto Signal levels

• A data symbol (or element) can consist of a number of data bits:

• 1 , 0 or
• 11, 10, 01, ……
• A data symbol can be coded into a single signal element or multiple
signal elements
• 1 -> +V, 0 -> -V
• 1 -> +V and -V, 0 -> -V and +V
• The ratio ‘r’ is the number of data elements carried by a signal element.
Relationship between data rate and signal rate

• The data rate defines the number of bits sent per sec - bps. It is often
referred to the bit rate.
• The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in a second and is
measured in bauds. It is also referred to as the modulation rate.
• Goal is to increase the data rate whilst reducing the baud rate.
Signal Element vs Data Element
Data rate and Baud rate

• The baud or signal rate can be expressed as:

S = c x N x 1/r bauds
• where N is data rate
• c is the case factor (worst, best & avg.)
• r is the ratio between data element & signal element
Example 1

Question:
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is encoded as one
signal element ( r = 1). If the bit rate is 100 kbps, what is the average
value of the baud rate if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution:
We assume that the average value of c is 1/2 . The baud rate is then
 Example 2

Question:
The maximum data rate of a channel (see Chapter 3) is Nmax = 2 × B × log 2 L
(defined by the Nyquist formula). Does this agree with the previous formula for
Nmax?
Solution:
A signal with L levels actually can carry log2L bits per level. If each level
corresponds to one signal element and we assume the average case (c = 1/2),
then we have
Considerations for choosing a good signal element referred
to as line encoding

• Baseline wandering - a receiver will evaluate the average power of

the received signal (called the baseline) and use that to determine the
value of the incoming data elements. If the incoming signal does not
vary over a long period of time, the baseline will drift and thus cause
errors in detection of incoming data elements.
• A good line encoding scheme will prevent long runs of fixed amplitude.
• DC components - when the voltage level remains constant for long
periods of time, there is an increase in the low frequencies of the signal.
Most channels are bandpass and may not support the low frequencies.
• This will require the removal of the dc component of a transmitted
signal.
• Self synchronization - the clocks at the sender and the receiver must
have the same bit interval.
• If the receiver clock is faster or slower it will misinterpret the incoming
bit stream.
Effect of lack of synchronization
 Line encoding considerations:

• Error detection - errors occur during transmission due to line

impairments.
• Some codes are constructed such that when an error occurs it can be
detected. For example: a particular signal transition is not part of the code.
When it occurs, the receiver will know that a symbol error has occurred.
• Noise and interference - there are line encoding techniques that make
the transmitted signal “immune” to noise and interference.
• This means that the signal cannot be corrupted, it is stronger than error
detection.
• Complexity - the more robust and resilient the code, the more complex it
is to implement and the price is often paid in baud rate or required
bandwidth.
Line Coding Schemes
 1. Unipolar

• All signal levels are on one side of the time axis - either above or below
• NRZ - Non Return to Zero scheme is an example of this code. The signal
level does not return to zero during a symbol transmission.
• Scheme is prone to baseline wandering and DC components. It has no
synchronization or any error detection. It is simple but costly in power
consumption.
Unipolar NRZ Scheme
2. Polar NRZ

• The voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

• Polar NRZ scheme can be implemented with two voltages. E.g. +V for 1
and -V for 0.
• There are two versions:
• NZR - Level (NRZ-L) - positive voltage for one symbol and
negative for the other
• NRZ - Inversion (NRZ-I) - the change or lack of change in polarity
determines the value of a symbol. E.g. a “1” symbol inverts the
polarity a “0” does not.
Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes
 Contd…

• In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the bit. In NRZ-I the
inversion or the lack of inversion determines the value of the bit.
• NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 Bd.
• NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have a DC component problem and baseline
wandering, it is worse for NRZ-L. Both have no self synchronization &no
error detection. Both are relatively simple to implement.
 Polar RZ

• The Return to Zero (RZ) scheme uses three voltage values. +, 0, -.

• Each symbol has a transition in the middle. Either from high to zero or from
low to zero.
• This scheme has more signal transitions (two per symbol) and therefore
requires a wider bandwidth.
• No DC components or baseline wandering.
• Self synchronization - transition indicates symbol value.
• More complex as it uses three voltage level. It has no error detection
capability.
Polar RZ Scheme
Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

• Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-L and RZ schemes.

• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle: from high to low or
low to high. Uses only two voltage levels.
• Differential Manchester coding consists of combining the NRZ-I and
RZ schemes.
• Every symbol has a level transition in the middle. But the level at the
beginning of the symbol is determined by the symbol value. One
symbol causes a level change the other does not.
 Polar - Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester

• In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding, the transition at the

middle of the bit is used for synchronization.
• The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and differential Manchester is 2
times that of NRZ. The is no DC component and no baseline wandering.
None of these codes has error detection.
3. Bipolar - AMI and Pseudoternary

• Code uses 3 voltage levels: - +, 0, -, to represent the symbols (note not

transitions to zero as in RZ).
• Voltage level for one symbol is at “0” and the other alternates between +
& -.
• Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) - the “0” symbol is represented
by zero voltage and the “1” symbol alternates between +V and -V.
• Pseudoternary is the reverse of AMI.
Bipolar Scheme - AMI and Pseudoternary
 Bipolar

• It is a better alternative to NRZ.

• Has no DC component or baseline wandering.
• Has no self synchronization because long runs of “0”s results in no signal
transitions.
• No error detection.
 4. Multi-level Schemes

• In these schemes we increase the number of data bits per symbol thereby
increasing the bit rate.
• Since we are dealing with binary data we only have 2 types of data element
a 1 or a 0.
• We can combine the 2 data elements into a pattern of “m” elements to
create “2m” symbols.
• If we have L signal levels, we can use “n” signal elements to create L n
signal elements.
Multilevel Code

• Now we have 2m symbols and Ln signals.

• If 2m > Ln then we cannot represent the data elements, we don’t have
enough signals.
• If 2m = Ln then we have an exact mapping of one symbol on one signal.
• If 2m < Ln then we have more signals than symbols and we can choose the
signals that are more distinct to represent the symbols and therefore have
better noise immunity and error detection as some signals are not valid.
 Representing Multilevel Codes

• We use the notation mBnL, where m is the length of the binary pattern, B
represents binary data, n represents the length of the signal pattern and L the
number of levels.
• L = B binary, L = T for 3 ternary, L = Q for 4 quaternary.
• In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is encoded as a pattern of n
signal elements in which 2m ≤ Ln.
Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme
 Redundancy

• In the 2B1Q scheme we have no redundancy and we see that a DC

component is present.
• If we use a code with redundancy we can decide to use only “0” or “+”
weighted codes (more +’s than -’s in the signal element) and invert any
code that would create a DC component. E.g. ‘+00++-’ -> ‘-00--+’
• Receiver will know when it receives a “-” weighted code that it should
invert it as it doesn’t represent any valid symbol.
Multilevel: 8B6T scheme
 Multilevel using multiple channels

• In some cases, we split the signal transmission up and distribute it over

several links.
• The separate segments are transmitted simultaneously. This reduces the
signaling rate per link -> lower bandwidth.
• This requires all bits for a code to be stored.
• xD: means that we use ‘x’ links
• YYYz: We use ‘z’ levels of modulation where YYY represents the type of
modulation (e.g. pulse ampl. mod. PAM).
• Codes are represented as: xD-YYYz
Multilevel: 4D-PAM5 scheme
 5. Multitransition Coding

• Because of synchronization requirements we force transitions. This can

result in very high bandwidth requirements -> more transitions than are bits
(e.g. mid bit transition with inversion).
• Codes can be created that are differential at the bit level forcing transitions
at bit boundaries. This results in a bandwidth requirement that is equivalent
to the bit rate.
• In some instances, the bandwidth requirement may even be lower, due to
repetitive patterns resulting in a periodic signal.
 Multitransition: MLT-3 scheme

• Signal rate is same as NRZ-I

• But because of the resulting bit pattern, we have a periodic signal for worst case
bit pattern: 1111
• This can be approximated as an analog signal a frequency 1/4 the bit rate.
Summary of Line Coding Schemes
Block Coding

• For a code to be capable of error detection, we need to add redundancy,

i.e., extra bits to the data bits.
• Synchronization also requires redundancy - transitions are important in
the signal flow and must occur frequently.
• Block coding is done in three steps: division, substitution and
combination.
• It is distinguished from multilevel coding by use of the slash - xB/yB.
• The resulting bit stream prevents certain bit combinations that when used
with line encoding would result in DC components or poor sync. quality.
 Block coding concept

• Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it replaces each m-bit

group with an n-bit group.
Using block coding 4B/5B with NRZ-I line coding scheme
4B/5B Mapping codes
Substitution in 4B/5B block coding
 Redundancy

• A 4 bit data word can have 24 combinations.

• A 5 bit word can have 25=32 combinations.
• We therefore have 32 - 26 = 16 extra words.
• Some of the extra words are used for control / signalling purposes
 Example

Question:
We need to send data at a 1-Mbps rate. What is the minimum required
bandwidth, using a combination of 4B/5B and NRZ-I or Manchester coding?
Solution:
First 4B/5B block coding increases the bit rate to 1.25 Mbps. The minimum
bandwidth using NRZ-I is N/2 or 625 kHz. The Manchester scheme needs a
minimum bandwidth of 1.25 MHz. The first choice needs a lower bandwidth,
but has a DC component problem; the second choice needs a higher
bandwidth, but does not have a DC component problem.
 8B/10B block encoding

• The 8B10B block code adds more redundant bits and can thereby choose code
words that would prevent a long run of a voltage level that would cause DC
components.
 Scrambling

• The best code is one that does not increase the bandwidth for
synchronization and has no DC components.
• Scrambling is a technique used to create a sequence of bits that has the
required c/c’s for transmission - self clocking, no low frequencies, no wide
bandwidth.
• It is implemented at the same time as encoding, the bit stream is created on
the fly.
• It replaces ‘unfriendly’ runs of bits with a violation code that is easy to
recognize and removes the unfriendly c/c.
AMI used with scrambling
 Two cases of B8ZS scrambling technique

• B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with 000VB0VB. The V stands for
violation, it violates the line encoding rule B stands for bipolar, it implements
the bipolar line encoding rule.
Summary

In today’s lecture we discussed

• Data Conversion
• Line coding schemes
• Block coding
• Scrambling
University Questions- Related to Topic

• Explain various line coding schemes?

• Explain Block coding?
Thank You