Chapter Two

METAL CASTING PROCESSES

 Sand Casting
 Other Expendable Mold Casting Processes
 Permanent Mold Casting Processes
 Foundry Practice
 Casting Quality
 Metals for Casting
 Product Design Considerations
 casting
Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other
force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of
the mold cavity
 The term casting also applies to the part made in the
process
 Steps in casting seem simple:
1. Melt the metal
2. Pour it into a mold
3. Let it freeze
 Foundry
 Casting is usually performed in a foundry
Foundry = factory equipped for making molds,
melting and handling molten metal,
performing the casting process, and cleaning
the finished casting
 Workers who perform casting are called
foundry men
 Part made in casting
 Big parts: engine blocks and heads for
automotive vehicles, wood burning stoves,
machine frames, railway wheels, pipes, big
bells, big statues, and pump housings
 Small parts: dental crowns, jewelry, small
statues, and frying pans
 All varieties of metals can be cast, ferrous and
nonferrous
Two Categories of Metal Casting Processes

1. Expendable mold processes - mold is sacrificed to

remove part
uses an expendable mold which must be destroyed to
remove casting
 Advantage: more complex shapes possible
 Disadvantage: production rates often limited by time to make
mold rather than casting itself
2. Permanent mold processes - mold is made of metal and
can be used to make many castings
 Advantage: higher production rates
 Disadvantage: geometries limited by need to open mold
 Mold in casting
 Contains cavity whose geometry determines part
shape
 Actual size and shape of cavity must be slightly oversized
to allow for shrinkage of metal during solidification and
cooling
 Molds are made of a variety of materials, including sand,
plaster, ceramic, and metal
 Open Molds and Closed Molds
Open Molds and Closed Molds

Fig 2.1 Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the desired part;
and

(b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex and requires a gating system
(passageway) leading into the cavity.
 Sand Casting Mold Terms
 Mold consists of two halves:
 Cope = upper half of mold
 Drag = bottom half
 Mold halves are contained in a box, called a
flask
 The two halves separate at the parting line
 Forming the Mold Cavity
 Mold cavity is formed by packing sand around a pattern,
which has the shape of the part
 When the pattern is removed, the remaining cavity has
desired shape of cast part
 The pattern is usually oversized to allow for shrinkage of
metal as it solidifies and cools
 Sand for the mold is moist and contains a binder to maintain
shape
 Use of a Core in the Mold Cavity
 The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the
cast part
 In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,
determined by a core, placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part
 In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
Step in sand casting
 The gating system
• The gating system in a casting mold is the channel, or network of channels,

by which molten metal flows into the cavity from outside the mold.

• As shown in the figure, the gating system typically consists of a down sprue

(also called simply the sprue), through which the metal enters a runner

that leads into the main cavity.

• At the top of the down sprue, a pouring cup is often used to minimize

splash and turbulence as the metal flows into the down sprue.

• It is shown in our diagram as a simple cone-shaped funnel. Some pouring

cups are designed in the shape of a bowl, with an open channel leading to

the down sprue.

 Riser
• In addition to the gating system, any casting in which shrinkage
is significant requires a riser connected to the main cavity.

• The riser is a reservoir in the mold that serves as a source of

liquid metal for the casting to compensate for shrinkage during
solidification.

• The riser must be designed to freeze after the main casting in

order to satisfy its function.
 Casting nomenclature
The next figure shows the nomenclature of mold
and castings in sand casting.
• The pouring cup,
down sprue, runners,
etc., are known as
the mold gating
system, which serves
to deliver the molten
metal to all sections
of the mold cavity.
 Core in casting

• The mold cavity provides the external surfaces of the

cast part
• In addition, a casting may have internal surfaces,
determined by a core, placed inside the mold cavity
to define the interior geometry of part
• In sand casting, cores are generally made of sand
 chaplet
• Chaplets are metal distance pieces inserted in a mould either to
prevent shifting of mould or locate core surfaces.
• The distances pieces in form of chaplets are made of parent
metal of which the casting is.
• These are placed in mould cavity suitably which positions core
and to give extra support to core and mould surfaces.
• Its main objective is to impart good alignment of mould and
core surfaces and to achieve directional solidification.
 Core vs. chaplet
• Full ‑ scale model of interior surfaces of part

• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring

• The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mold

cavity and the core to form the casting's external and
internal surfaces

• May require supports to hold it in position in the mold

cavity during pouring, called chaplets
Figure 2.2 ‑ Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets
(b) possible chaplet design
(c) casting with internal cavity
 Overview of Sand Casting
• Most widely used casting process, accounting
for a significant majority of total tonnage cast
• Nearly all alloys can be sand casted, including
metals with high melting temperatures, such
as steel, nickel, and titanium
• Parts ranging in size from small to very large
• Production quantities from one to millions
Figure 2.3 ‑ A large sand casting weighing over 680 kg (1500 lb) \
for an air compressor frame
 Steps in Sand Casting
1. Prepare mold for pour.
2. Pour molten metal into sand mold
3. Allow metal to solidify
4. Break up the mold to remove casting
5. Clean and inspect casting
6. Heat treatment of casting is sometimes
required to improve metallurgical properties
 Making the Sand Mold
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing
sand around a pattern, then separating the mold
into two halves and removing the pattern
• The mold must also contain gating and riser
system
• If casting is to have internal surfaces, a core
must be included in mold
• A new sand mold must be made for each part
produced
Figure 2.4 ‑ Steps in the production sequence in sand casting The
steps include not only the casting operation but also
pattern‑making and mold‑making.
 The Pattern
A full‑sized model of the part, slightly enlarged
to account for shrinkage and machining
allowances in the casting
• Pattern materials:
– Wood - common material because it is easy to
work
– Metal - more expensive to make, but lasts much
longer
– Plastic - compromise between wood and metal
 pattern
• In pattern making, a physical model of casting, i.e. a pattern is used
to make the mold.
• The mold is made by packing some readily formed aggregated
materials, like molding sand, around the pattern.
• After the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint leaves the mold cavity that
is ultimately filled with metal to become the casting.
• In case, the castings is required to be hollow, such as in the case of
pipe fittings, additional patterns, known as cores, are used to
develop these cavities.
 A pattern is a model or the replica of the object (to be casted).

 It is embedded in molding sand and suitable ramming of molding

sand around the pattern is made.

 The pattern is then withdrawn for generating cavity (known as

mold) in molding sand.

 Thus it is a mould forming tool.

 Pattern can be said as a model or the replica of the object to be cast

except for the various al1owances a pattern exactly resembles the

casting to be made.
 It may be defined as a model or form around which sand is packed to

give rise to a cavity known as mold cavity in which when molten

metal is poured, the result is the cast object.

 When this mould/cavity is filled with molten metal, molten metal

solidifies and produces a casting (product).

 So the pattern is the replica of the casting.

Objectives of a Pattern

1. Pattern prepares a mould cavity for the purpose of making a casting.

2. Pattern possesses core prints which produces seats in form of extra

recess for core placement in the mould.
3 . It establishes the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.

4 . Runner, gates and riser may form a part of the pattern.

5. Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.

6. Pattern may help in establishing locating pins on the mould and therefore
on the casting with a purpose to check the casting dimensions.

7. Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce casting
defects.

• Patterns are generally made in pattern making shop. Proper construction

of pattern and its material may reduce overal1 cost of the castings.
The following factors must be taken into consideration

while selecting pattern materials.

1. Number of castings to be produced. Metal pattern are

preferred when castings are

required large in number.

2. Type of mould material used.

3. Kind of molding process.

4. Method of molding (hand or machine).

5. Degree of dimensional accuracy and surface finish

required.

6. Minimum thickness required.

7. Shape, complexity and size of casting.

8. Cost of pattern and chances of repeat orders of the pattern

Figure 2.5 ‑ Types of patterns used in sand casting:
(a) solid pattern
(b) split pattern
(c) match‑plate pattern
(d) cope and drag pattern
 Desirable Mold Properties and
Characteristics
• Strength ‑ to maintain shape and resist erosion
• Permeability ‑ to allow hot air and gases to pass
through voids in sand
• Thermal stability ‑ to resist cracking on contact
with molten metal
• Collapsibility ‑ ability to give way and allow
casting to shrink without cracking the casting
• Reusability ‑ can sand from broken mold be
reused to make other molds?
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 Foundry Sands
Silica (SiO2) or silica mixed with other minerals
• Good refractory properties ‑ capacity to endure
high temperatures
• Small grain size yields better surface finish on the
cast part
• Large grain size is more permeable, to allow escape
of gases during pouring
• Irregular grain shapes tend to strengthen molds due
to interlocking, compared to round grains
– Disadvantage: interlocking tends to reduce permeability
 Binders Used with Foundry Sands
• Sand is held together by a mixture of water and
bonding clay
– Typical mix: 90% sand, 3% water, and 7% clay
• Other bonding agents also used in sand molds:
– Organic resins (e g , phenolic resins)
– Inorganic binders (e g , sodium silicate and
phosphate)
• Additives are sometimes combined with the
mixture to enhance strength and/or permeability
 Types of Sand Mold
• Green‑sand molds - mixture of sand, clay, and
water;
– “Green" means mold contains moisture at time of
pouring
• Dry‑sand mold - organic binders rather than
clay and mold is baked to improve strength
• Skin‑dried mold - drying mold cavity surface of
a green‑sand mold to a depth of 10 to 25 mm,
using torches or heating lamps
 Buoyancy in Sand Casting Operation
• During pouring, buoyancy of the molten metal
tends to displace the core
• Core displacement can cause casting to be
defective
Force tending to lift core = weight of displaced
liquid less the weight of core itself
Fb = Wm ‑ Wc
where Fb = buoyancy force; Wm = weight of molten
metal displaced; and Wc = weight of core
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 Other Expendable Mold
Casting Processes
• Shell Molding
• Vacuum Molding
• Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Investment Casting
• Plaster Mold
• Ceramic Mold Casting
 Shell Molding
Casting process in which the mold is a thin shell
of sand held together by thermosetting resin
binder
• Developed in Germany during early 1940s
Figure 2.6 ‑ Steps in shell‑molding: (1) a match‑plate or
cope‑and‑drag metal pattern is heated and placed over a
box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin

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Figure 2.7 ‑ Steps in shell‑molding: (2) box is inverted so that sand and
resin fall onto the hot pattern, causing a layer of the mixture to
partially cure on the surface to form a hard shell

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Figure 2.8 ‑ Steps in shell‑molding: (3) box is repositioned so that
loose uncured particles drop away

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Figure 2.9 ‑ Steps in shell‑molding:
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern

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Figure 2.10 ‑ Steps in shell‑molding:
(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand or
metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished
(7) the finished casting with sprue removed

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Shell Molding
• Advantages:
– Smoother cavity surface permits easier flow of molten
metal and better surface finish on casting
– Good dimensional accuracy
– Machining often not required
– Mold collapsibility usually avoids cracks in casting
– Can be mechanized for mass production
• Disadvantages:
– More expensive metal pattern
– Difficult to justify for small quantities
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 Vacuum Molding
Uses sand mold held together by vacuum
pressure rather than by a chemical binder
• The term "vacuum" refers to mold making
rather than casting operation itself
• Developed in Japan around 1970

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Vacuum
Molding
• Advantages:
– Easy recovery of the sand, since binders not used
– Sand does not require mechanical reconditioning
normally done when binders are used
– Since no water is mixed with sand,
moisture‑related defects are absent
• Disadvantages:
– Slow process
– Not readily adaptable to mechanization
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 Expanded Polystyrene Process
Uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern which vaporizes when molten metal is
poured into mold
• Other names: lost‑foam process, lost pattern
process, evaporative‑foam process, and full‑mold
process
• Polystyrene foam pattern includes sprue, risers,
gating system, and internal cores (if needed)
• Mold does not have to be opened into cope and
drag sections
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Figure 2.11 ‑ Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound

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Figure 2.12 ‑ Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is
compacted around the pattern

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Figure 2.13 ‑ Expanded polystyrene casting process:
(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the
pouring cup and sprue. As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene
foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid, thus allowing the
resulting mold cavity to be filled.
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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Advantages:
– Pattern need not be removed from the mold
– Simplifies and expedites mold‑making, since two
mold halves (cope and drag) are not required as in
a conventional green‑sand mold
• Disadvantages:
– A new pattern is needed for every casting
– Economic justification of the process is highly
dependent on cost of producing patterns
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 Applications of
Expanded Polystyrene Process
• Mass production of castings for automobile
engines
• Automated and integrated manufacturing
systems are used to
– Mold the polystyrene foam patterns and then
– Feed them to the downstream casting operation

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 Investment Casting (Lost Wax Process)

A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory

material to make mold, after which wax is
melted away prior to pouring molten metal
• "Investment" comes from one of the less
familiar definitions of "invest" - "to cover
completely," which refers to coating of
refractory material around wax pattern
• It is a precision casting process - capable of
castings of high accuracy and intricate detail
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Figure 2.14 ‑ Steps in investment casting:
(1) wax patterns are produced
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree

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Figure 2.15 ‑ Steps in investment casting:
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with sufficient
refractory material to make it rigid
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Figure 2.16 ‑ Steps in investment casting:
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the wax
and permit it to drip out of the cavity

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 Figure 2.17 ‑ Steps in investment
casting:
(6) the mold is preheated to a high
temperature, which ensures that
all contaminants are eliminated
from the mold; it also permits
the liquid metal to flow more
easily into the detailed cavity;
the molten metal is poured; it
solidifies

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Figure 2.18 ‑ Steps in investment casting:
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting -

parts are separated from the sprue

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Investment Casting
• Advantages:
– Parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast
– Close dimensional control and good surface finish
– Wax can usually be recovered for reuse
– Additional machining is not normally required ‑
this is a net shape process
• Disadvantages
– Many processing steps are required
– Relatively expensive process
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Figure 2.19 ‑ A one‑piece compressor stator with 108 separate airfoils made by
investment casting (courtesy Howmet Corp )
 Plaster Mold Casting
Similar to sand casting except mold is made of
plaster of Paris (gypsum ‑ CaSO4‑2H2O)
• In mold-making, plaster and water mixture is
poured over plastic or metal pattern and
allowed to set
– Wood patterns not generally used due to extended
contact with water
• Plaster mixture readily flows around pattern,
capturing its fine details and good surface finish
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Plaster Mold Casting
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Capability to make thin cross‑sections in casting
• Disadvantages:
– Moisture in plaster mold causes problems:
• Mold must be baked to remove moisture
• Mold strength is lost when is over-baked, yet
moisture content can cause defects in product
– Plaster molds cannot stand high temperatures,
so limited to lower melting point alloys
 Ceramic Mold Casting
Similar to plaster mold casting except that mold is
made of refractory ceramic materials that can
withstand higher temperatures than plaster
• Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast
irons, and other high‑temperature alloys
• Applications similar to those of plaster mold
casting except for the metals cast
• Advantages (good accuracy and finish) also
similar
Permanent Mold Casting Processes
• Economic disadvantage of expendable mold
casting: a new mold is required for every
casting
• In permanent mold casting, the mold is reused
many times
• The processes include:
– Basic permanent mold casting
– Die casting
– Centrifugal casting
The Basic Permanent Mold Process
Uses a metal mold constructed of two sections
designed for easy, precise opening and closing
• Molds used for casting lower melting point
alloys are commonly made of steel or cast iron
• Molds used for casting steel must be made of
refractory material, due to the very high
pouring temperatures
Figure 2.20 ‑ Steps in permanent mold casting:
(1) mold is preheated and coated
Figure2.21 ‑ Steps in permanent mold casting:
(2) cores (if used) are inserted and mold is closed
Figure 2.22 ‑ Steps in permanent mold casting:

(3) molten metal is poured into the mold

 Advantages and Limitations of
Permanent Mold Casting
• Advantages:
– Good dimensional control and surface finish
– More rapid solidification caused by the cold metal
mold results in a finer grain structure, so stronger
castings are produced
• Limitations:
– Generally limited to metals of lower melting point
– Simple part geometries compared to sand casting
because of the need to open the mold
– High cost of mold
 Applications of Permanent Mold Casting

• Due to high mold cost, process is best suited

to high volume production and can be
automated accordingly
• Typical parts: automotive pistons, pump
bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles
• Metals commonly cast: aluminum,
magnesium, copper‑base alloys, and cast iron
 Die Casting
A permanent mold casting process in which molten
metal is injected into mold cavity under high
pressure
• Pressure is maintained during solidification, then
mold is opened and part is removed
• Molds in this casting operation are called dies;
hence the name die casting
• Use of high pressure to force metal into die cavity is
what distinguishes this from other permanent mold
processes
 Die Casting Machines
• Designed to hold and accurately close two
mold halves and keep them closed while
liquid metal is forced into cavity
• Two main types:
1. Hot‑chamber machine
2. Cold‑chamber machine
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston
injects liquid metal under high pressure into
the die
• High production rates
• Applications limited to low melting‑point
metals that do not chemically attack plunger
and other mechanical components
• Casting metals: zinc, tin, lead, and magnesium
Figure 2.23 ‑ Cycle in hot‑chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into the
chamber
Figure 2.24 ‑ Cycle in hot‑chamber casting:
(2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification
 Cold‑Chamber Die Casting
Machine
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity
• High production but not usually as fast as
hot‑chamber machines because of pouring step
• Casting metals: aluminum, brass, and
magnesium alloys
• Advantages of hot‑chamber process favor its use
on low melting‑point alloys (zinc, tin, lead)
Figure 2.25 ‑ Cycle in cold‑chamber casting:
(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal
is poured into the chamber
Figure 2.26 ‑ Cycle in cold‑chamber casting:
(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification
 Molds for Die Casting
• Usually made of tool steel, mold steel, or
maraging steel
• Tungsten and molybdenum (good refractory
qualities) used to die cast steel and cast iron
• Ejector pins required to remove part from die
when it opens
• Lubricants must be sprayed into cavities to
prevent sticking
 Advantages and Limitations of
Die Casting
• Advantages:
– Economical for large production quantities
– Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
– Thin sections are possible
– Rapid cooling provides small grain size and good
strength to casting
• Disadvantages:
– Generally limited to metals with low melting points
– Part geometry must allow removal from die cavity
 Centrifugal Casting
A group of casting processes in which the mold
is rotated at high speed so centrifugal force
distributes molten metal to outer regions of
die cavity
• The group includes:
– True centrifugal casting
– Semicentrifugal casting
– Centrifuge casting
 True Centrifugal Casting
Molten metal is poured into rotating mold to
produce a tubular part
• In some operations, mold rotation commences
after pouring rather than before
• Parts: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings
• Outside shape of casting can be round,
octagonal, hexagonal, etc , but inside shape is
(theoretically) perfectly round, due to radially
symmetric forces
Figure 2.27 ‑ Setup for true centrifugal casting
 Semicentrifugal Casting
Centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings
rather than tubular parts
• Molds are designed with risers at center to supply
feed metal
• Density of metal in final casting is greater in outer
sections than at center of rotation
• Often used on parts in which center of casting is
machined away, thus eliminating the portion where
quality is lowest
• Examples: wheels and pulleys
 Centrifuge Casting
• Mold is designed with part cavities located
away from axis of rotation, so that molten
metal poured into mold is distributed to these
cavities by centrifugal force
• Used for smaller parts
• Radial symmetry of part is not required as in
other centrifugal casting methods
 Furnaces for Casting Processes
• Furnaces most commonly used in foundries:
– Cupolas
– Direct fuel‑fired furnaces
– Crucible furnaces
– Electric‑arc furnaces
– Induction furnaces
 Cupolas
Vertical cylindrical furnace equipped with
tapping spout near base
• Used only for cast irons, and although other
furnaces are also used, largest tonnage of cast
iron is melted in cupolas
• The "charge," consisting of iron, coke, flux,
and possible alloying elements, is loaded
through a charging door located less than
halfway up height of cupola
 Direct Fuel‑Fired Furnaces
Small open‑hearth in which charge is heated by
natural gas fuel burners located on side of
furnace
• Furnace roof assists heating action by reflecting
flame down against charge
• At bottom of hearth is a tap hole to release
molten metal
• Generally used for nonferrous metals such as
copper‑base alloys and aluminum
 Crucible Furnaces
Metal is melted without direct contact with
burning fuel mixture
• Sometimes called indirect fuel‑fired furnaces
• Container (crucible) is made of refractory
material or high‑temperature steel alloy
• Used for nonferrous metals such as bronze,
brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminum
• Three types used in foundries: (a) lift‑ out type,
(b) stationary, (c) tilting
Figure 2.27 ‑ Three types of crucible furnaces:
(a) lift‑out crucible,
(b) stationary pot, from which molten metal must be ladled, and
(c) tilting-pot furnace
 Electric‑Arc Furnaces
Charge is melted by heat generated from an
electric arc
• High power consumption, but electric‑arc
furnaces can be designed for high melting
capacity
• Used primarily for melting steel
Figure 2.28 ‑ Electric arc furnace for steelmaking
 Induction Furnaces
Uses alternating current passing through a coil to
develop magnetic field in metal
• Induced current causes rapid heating and melting
• Electromagnetic force field also causes mixing action
in liquid metal
• Since metal does not contact heating elements, the
environment can be closely controlled, which results
in molten metals of high quality and purity
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys are
common applications in foundry work
Figure 2.29‑ Induction furnace
 Ladles
• Moving molten metal from melting furnace to
mold is sometimes done using crucibles
• More often, transfer is accomplished by ladles

Figure 2.30 ‑ Two common types of ladles: (a) crane ladle, and (b)
two‑man ladle
Additional Steps After Solidification
• Trimming
• Removing the core
• Surface cleaning
• Inspection
• Repair, if required
• Heat treatment
 Trimming
Removal of sprues, runners, risers, parting‑line
flash, fins, chaplets, and any other excess metal
from the cast part
• For brittle casting alloys and when
cross‑sections are relatively small, appendages
can be broken off
• Otherwise, hammering, shearing, hack‑sawing,
band‑sawing, abrasive wheel cutting, or various
torch cutting methods are used
 Removing the Core
• If cores have been used, they must be removed
• Most cores are bonded, and they often fall out
of casting as the binder deteriorates
• In some cases, they are removed by shaking
casting, either manually or mechanically
• In rare cases, cores are removed by chemically
dissolving bonding agent
• Solid cores must be hammered or pressed out
 Surface Cleaning
Removal of sand from casting surface and
otherwise enhancing appearance of surface
• Cleaning methods: tumbling, air‑blasting with
coarse sand grit or metal shot, wire brushing,
buffing, and chemical pickling
• Surface cleaning is most important for sand
casting, whereas in many permanent mold
processes, this step can be avoided
 Heat Treatment
• Castings are often heat treated to enhance
properties
• Reasons for heat treating a casting:
– For subsequent processing operations such as
machining
– To bring out the desired properties for the
application of the part in service

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 Casting Quality/defects
• Defects are possible in casting, and inspection
is needed to detect their presence
• There are numerous opportunities for things
to go wrong in a casting operation, resulting in
quality defects in the product
• The defects can be classified as follows:
– Defects common to all casting processes
– Defects related to sand casting process

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 Misrun
A casting that has solidified before completely
filling mold cavity

Figure 2.31 ‑ Some common defects in castings: (a) misrun

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Causes
• (i) Low fluidity of the molten metal.
(ii) Low temperature of the molten metal which
decreases its fluidity.
(iii) Too thin section and improper gating system.
Remedies
• (i) Increasing the pouring temperature of the molten
metal increases the fluidity.
(ii) Proper gating system
(iii) Too thin section is avoided.
 Cold Shut
Two portions of metal flow together but there is a
lack of fusion due to premature freezing

Figure 2.32 ‑ Some common defects in castings: (b) cold shut

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Engineering
Causes
• (i) Poor gating system
(ii) Low melting temperature
(iii) Lack of fluidity
Remedies
• (i) Improved gating system.
(ii) Proper pouring temperature.
 Cold Shot
Metal splatters during pouring and solid globules
form and become entrapped in casting

Figure 2.33 ‑ Some common defects in castings: (c) cold shot

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Engineering
Causes
• (i) Uneven or uncontrolled solidification of
molten metal.
(ii) Pouring temperature is too high.
Remedies
• (i) This defect can be removed by applying
principle of directional solidification in mold
design.
(ii) Wise use of chills (a chill is an object which is
used to promote solidification in a specific
portion of a metal casting) and padding.
 Pin Holes
Formation of many small gas cavities at or slightly
below surface of casting.
This defect happens because of the dissolution of
the hydrogen gases in the molten metal.

Figure 2.35 ‑ Common defects in sand castings: (b) pin holes

ISE 316 - Manufacturing Processes
Engineering
Causes
• (i) Use of high moisture content sand.
(ii) Absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gas by
molten metal.
(iii) Pouring of steel from wet ladles or not sufficiently
gasified.
Remedies
• (i) By reducing the moisture content of the molding
sand.
(ii) Good fluxing and melting practices should be used.
(iii) Increasing permeability of the sand.
(iv) By doing rapid rate of solidification.
 Penetration
When fluidity of liquid metal is high, it may penetrate
into sand mold or sand core, causing casting surface
to consist of a mixture of sand grains and metal

Figure 2.36 ‑ Common defects in sand castings: (e) penetration

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Engineering
Causes
• It is caused due to low strength, large grain
size, high permeability and soft ramming of
sand. Because of this the molten metal
penetrates in the molding sand and we get
rough or uneven casting surface.
Remedies
• This defect can be eliminated by using high
strength, small grain size, low permeability
and soft ramming of sand.
 Mold Shift
A step in cast product at parting line caused by
sidewise relative displacement of cope and drag

Figure 2.37 ‑ Common defects in sand castings: (f) mold shift

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Engineering
Cause
• (i)Improper alignment of upper and lower part
during mold preparation.
(ii) Misalignment of flask (a flask is type of tool
which is used to contain a mold in metal casting. it
may be square, round, rectangular or of any
convenient shape.)
Remedies
• (i) Proper alignment of the pattern or die part,
molding boxes.
(ii) Correct mountings of pattern on pattern plates.
(iii) Check the alignment of flask.
 Sand Holes
It is the holes created on the external surface or inside the
casting. It occurs when loose sand washes into the mold cavity
and fuses into the interior of the casting or rapid pouring of the
molten metal.
Causes:
• (i) Loose ramming of the sand.
(ii) Rapid pouring of the molten metal into the mold results in
wash away of sand from the mold and a hole is created.
(iii) Improper cleaning of the mold cavity.
Remedies
• (i) Proper ramming of the sand.
(ii) Molten metal should be poured carefully in the mold.
(iii) Proper cleaning of the molten cavity eliminates sand
holes.
 Drop
Drop defect occurs when there is cracking on the upper surface of the sand and
sand pieces fall into the molten metal.

Causes
• (i) Soft ramming and low strength of sand.
(ii) Insufficient fluxing of molten metal. Fluxing means addition of a substance in
molten metal to remove impurities. After fluxing the impurities from the molten
metal can be easily removed.
(iii) Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in the cope.

Remedies
• (i) Sand of high strength should be used with proper ramming (neither too hard nor
soft).
(ii) There should be proper fluxing of molten metal, so the impurities present in
molten metal is removed easily before pouring it into the mold.
(iii) Sufficient reinforcement of the sand projections in the cope.
 Dirt
The embedding of particles of dust and sand in the
casting surface, results in dirt defect.
Causes:
• (i) Cursing of mold due to improper handling and
Sand wash (A sloping surface of sand that spread out
by stream of molten metal).
(ii) Presence of slag particles in the molten metal.
Remedies:
• (i) Proper handling of the mold to avoid crushing.
(ii) Sufficient fluxing should be done to remove slag
impurities from molten metal.
 Foundry Inspection Methods
• Visual inspection to detect obvious defects
such as misruns, cold shuts, and severe
surface flaws
• Dimensional measurements to insure that
tolerances have been met
• Metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other
tests concerned with quality of cast metal

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Engineering
 Metals for Casting
• Most commercial castings are made of alloys
rather than pure metals
– Alloys are generally easier to cast, and properties
of product are better
• Casting alloys can be classified as:
– Ferrous
– Nonferrous

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Engineering
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Cast Iron

• Most important of all casting alloys

• Tonnage of cast iron castings is several times
that of all other metals combined
• Several types: (1) gray cast iron, (2) nodular
iron, (3) white cast iron, (4) malleable iron, and
(5) alloy cast irons
• Typical pouring temperatures  1400C
(2500F), depending on composition
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Engineering
 Ferrous Casting Alloys: Steel
• The mechanical properties of steel make it an
attractive engineering material
• The capability to create complex geometries makes
casting an attractive shaping process
• Difficulties faced by the foundry working with steel:
– Pouring temperature of steel is higher than for most
other casting metals  1650C (3000F)
– At these temperatures, steel readily oxidizes, so molten
metal must be isolated from air
– Molten steel has relatively poor fluidity
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Engineering
Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Aluminum

• Generally considered to be very castable

• Pouring temperatures low – melting
temperature of aluminum Tm = 660C (1220F)
• Properties:
– Light weight
– Range of strength properties by heat treatment
– Ease of machining

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Engineering
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Copper Alloys

• Includes bronze, brass, and aluminum bronze

• Properties:
– Corrosion resistance
– Attractive appearance
– Good bearing qualities
• Limitation: high cost of copper
• Applications: pipe fittings, marine propeller
blades, pump components, ornamental jewelry

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Engineering
 Nonferrous Casting Alloys: Zinc Alloys
• Highly castable, commonly used in die casting
• Low melting point – melting point of zinc Tm =
419C (786F)
• Good fluidity for ease of casting
• Properties:
– Low creep strength, so castings cannot be
subjected to prolonged high stresses

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Engineering
Product Design Considerations: Geometric
Simplicity
• Although casting can be used to produce
complex part geometries, simplifying the part
design will improve castability
• Avoiding unnecessary complexities:
– Simplifies mold‑making
– Reduces the need for cores
– Improves the strength of the casting

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Engineering
 Product Design Considerations:
Corners
• Sharp corners and angles should be avoided,
since they are sources of stress concentrations
and may cause hot tearing and cracks
• Generous fillets should be designed on inside
corners and sharp edges should be blended

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Engineering
 Product Design Considerations:
Draft Guidelines
• In expendable mold casting, purpose of draft
is to facilitate removal of pattern from mold
(1 for sand casting)
• In permanent mold casting, purpose is to aid
in removal of the part from the mold (2 to 3
for permanent mold processes)
• Similar tapers should be allowed if solid cores
are used

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Engineering
• Minor changes in part design can reduce need for
coring

Figure 2.38 – Design change to eliminate the need for using a core:
(a) original design, and (b) redesign

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Engineering
 Product Design Considerations:
Dimensional Tolerances and Surface Finish

Significant differences in dimensional

accuracies and finishes can be achieved in
castings, depending on process:
• Poor dimensional accuracies and finish for
sand casting
• Good dimensional accuracies and finish for
die casting and investment casting
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Engineering
Product Design Considerations: Machining
Allowances
• Almost all sand castings must be machined to
achieve the required dimensions and part
features
• Additional material, called the machining
allowance, must be left on the casting in those
surfaces where machining is necessary
• Typical machining allowances for sand castings
are around 1.5 and 3 mm (1/16 and 1/4 in)