Artificial Intelligence

Chapter 1: Introduction

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 1

 Added by students
• Knowledge
• Ability to make correct decisions (response)
• Able to think
• Ability to understand
• Ability to interpret
• Ability to efficiently work.
• Ability to apply whatever they have learned

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 2

 What is Intelligence?
• Main Entry: in·tel·li·gence
Pronunciation: in-'te-l&-j&n(t)s
Function: noun
Etymology: Middle English, from Middle French, from Latin intelligentia, from
intelligent-, intelligens intelligent

• 1 a (1) : the ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying situations :
REASON; also : the skilled use of reason (2) : the ability to apply knowledge to
manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by objective
criteria (as tests) b Christian Science : the basic eternal quality of divine Mind c :
mental acuteness : SHREWDNESS

• 2 a : an intelligent entity; especially : ANGEL b : intelligent minds or mind <cosmic

intelligence>

• 3 : the act of understanding : COMPREHENSION

• 4 a : INFORMATION, NEWS b : information concerning an enemy or possible

enemy or an area; also : an agency engaged in obtaining such information

• 5 : the ability to perform computer functions

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 3

A Bit of Humor

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 4

 Goals of this Course
• Become familiar with AI techniques,
including their implementations
– Be able to develop AI applications
• Python, LiSP, Prolog

• Understand the theory behind the

techniques, knowing which techniques to
apply when (and why)

• Become familiar with a range of

applications of AI, including “classic” and
current systems.
AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 5
 What is Artificial
Intelligence?
• Not just studying intelligent systems,
but building them…

• Psychological approach: an intelligent

system is a model of human
intelligence

• Engineering approach: an intelligent

system solves a sufficiently difficult
problem in a generalizable way
AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 6
 A Bit of AI History (section
1.3)
• Gestation (1943-1955)
– Early learning theory, first neural network, Turing test
– McCulloch and Pitts artificial neuron, Hebbian learning

• Birth (1956)
– Name coined by McCarthy
– Workshop at Dartmouth

• Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952-1969)

– GPS (General Problem Solver), physical symbol system
hypothesis
– Geometry Theorem Prover (Gelertner), Checkers (Samuels)
– Lisp (McCarthy), Theorem Proving (McCarthy), Microworlds
(Minsky et. al.)
– “neat” (McCarthy @ Stanford) vs. “scruffy” (Minsky @ MIT)

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 7

 A Bit of AI History (section
1.3)
• Dose of Reality (1966-1973)
– Combinatorial explosion

• Knowledge-based systems (1969-1979)

• AI Becomes an Industry (1980-present)

– Boom period 1980-88, then AI Winter

• Return of Neural Networks (1986-present)

• AI Becomes a Science (1987-present)

– SOAR, Internet as a domain
AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 8
• The Turing Test
(1950)
– Can machines think?
– Can machines Human
behave intelligently? ?
Human
• Operational test for Interrogator
intelligent behavior
– The Imitation Game
AI System

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 9

 What is Artificial Intelligence?
(again)
• Systems that act like • Systems that think
humans rationally
– Turing Test Approach – “Laws of Thought”
– “The art of creating approach
machines that perform – “The study of mental
functions that require faculties through the use
intelligence when of computational models”
performed by people” – Charniak and McDermott
– Kurzweil 1990

• Systems that act

• Systems that think like rationally
humans – Rational Agent Approach
– Cognitive Modeling
Approach – “The branch of CS that is
– “The automation of
concerned with the
automation of intelligent
activities that we associate behavior”
with human thinking...”
– Bellman 1978 – Lugar and Stubblefield

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 10

 Acting Humanly
• Turing Test (cont)
– Predicted that by 2000, a machine might have a
30% chance of fooling a lay person for 5 minutes
– Anticipated all major arguments against AI in
following 50 years
– Suggested major components of AI: knowledge,
reasoning, language understanding, learning

• Problem!
– The turning test is not reproducible,
constructive, or amenable to mathematical
analysis
AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 11
 Acting Humanly
• To pass this test the computer would require
following components:
1. Natural Language Processing : to communicate
effectively in English.
2. Knowledge Representation : to store what it knows or
hears.
3. Automated Reasoning : to use the stored information
to answer questions and to draw new conclusion.
4. Machine Learning: to adapt to new circumstances
5. Computer Vision: to perceive objects
6. Robotics: to manipulate objects and move about.

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 12

 Thinking Humanly
• Cognitive Modelling Approach
• How do we determine if a Machine can
think like human:
1.Introspection : Trying analyze our own thoughts.
2.Psychological Experiments : Observing person in
action.
3.Brain Imaging : Observing brain in action.

AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 13

 Thinking Humanly
• Cognitive Modelling Approach

• 1960’s cognitive revolution

• Requires scientific theories of internal activities of
the brain
– What level of abstraction? “Knowledge” or
“Circuits”
– How to validate?
• Predicting and testing behavior of human
subjects (top-down)
• Direct identification from neurological data
(bottom-up)
• Cognitive Science and Cognitive Neuroscience
– Now distinct from AI
AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 14
 Thinking Rationally
• Normative (or prescriptive) rather than
descriptive
• Aristotle: What are correct arguments /
thought processes?
• Logic notation and rules for derivation for
thoughts
• Problems:
– Not all intelligent behavior is mediated by
logical deliberation
– What is the purpose of thinking? What
thoughts should I have?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 15
 Acting Rationally
• Rational behavior
– Doing the right thing

• What is the “right thing”

– That which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given available information

• We do many (“right”) things without thinking

– Thinking should be in the service of rational action

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 16

 Applied Areas of AI
• Heuristic Search
• Computer Vision
• Adversarial Search (Games)
• Fuzzy Logic
• Natural Language Processing
• Knowledge Representation
• Planning
• Learning
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 17
 Examples
• Playing chess • Recognizing
• Driving on the speech
highway • Diagnosing
• Mowing the lawn diseases
• Answering • Translating
questions languages
• Data mining

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 18

 Lab 1 Objective
PART A PART B

•Short Python •Install AnyLogic

Evaluation : To Guage •Choose a tutorial to
your Python skills and create a simple agent.
DS Algorithm •Understand the flow
Understanding level and
and in future we will
application in Python.
incorporate Mesa.
•Also, August 31st is
deadline to provide
final Project Topics
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 19
 Heuristic Search
• Very large search space
– Large databases
– Image sequences
– Game playing
• Algorithms
– Guaranteed best answer
– Can be slow – literally years
• Heuristics
– “Rules of thumb”
– Very fast
– Good answer likely, but not guaranteed!
• Searching foreign intelligence for terrorist
activity.
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 20
 Computer Vision
• Computationally taxing
– Millions of bytes of data
per frame
– Thirty frames per second
• Computers are scalar /
Images are
multidimensional
• Image Enhancement
vs. Image
Understanding
• Can you find the
terrorist in this picture?
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 21
 Adversarial Search
• Game theory...
– Two player, zero sum – checkers, chess, etc.
• Minimax
– My side is MAX
– Opponent is MIN
• Alpha-Beta
– Evaluation function...”how good is board”
– Not reliable...play game (look ahead) as deep
as possible and use minimax.
– Select “best” backed up value.
• Where will Al-Qaeda strike next?

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 22

 Adversarial Search
1

X X O

MIN O

...
2 6

X X O X X O

MAX O O O O
X X

3 4 5 7 8 9

X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O X X O

O O X O O O O X O O O O O O

X X X X X X X X X X

1-0=1 1-2=-1 1-1=0 *91* 0 10

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 23

 Example: Tic Tac Toe #1
• Precompiled
move table.
move
table

• For each input encode look

up
board, a specific
move (output
board)

• Perfect play, but

is it AI?

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 24

 Example: Tic Tac Toe #2
• Represent board as a magic square, one
integer per square

• If 3 of my pieces sum to 15, I win

• Predefined strategy:
– 1. Win
– 2. Block
– 3. Take center
– 4. Take corner
– 5. Take any open square
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 25
 Example: Tic Tac Toe #3
• Given a board, consider all possible moves (future
boards) and pick the best one

• Look ahead (opponent’s best move, your best

move…) until end of game

• Functions needed:
– Next move generator
– Board evaluation function

• Change these 2 functions (only) to play a

different game!
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 26
 Fuzzy Logic
• Basic logic is binary
– 0 or 1, true or false, black or white, on
or off, etc...
• But in the real world there are of
“shades”
– Light red or dark red
– 0.64756
• Membership functions
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 27
 Fuzzy Logic
Linguistic
Appetit
Variable
e

Linguistic
Light Moderat Heav Values
e y
1

Membership
Grade

1000 2000 3000

Calories Eaten Per Day

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 28

 Natural Language
Processing
• Speech recognition vs. natural language
processing
– NLP is after the words are recognized
• Ninety/Ten Rule
– Can do 90% of the translation with 10% time, but 10%
work takes 90% time
• Easy for restricted domains
– Dilation
– Automatic translation
– Control your computer
• Say “Enter” or “one” or “open”
– Associative calculus
• Understand by doing
January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 29
 Natural Language
Processing
Net for Basic Noun Group
adjective

determiner noun
“The big grey dog” S1 S2 S3

Net for Prepositional Group

preposition NOUNG
“by the table in the corner” S1 S2 S3

Net for Basic Noun Group

PREPG
adjective

determiner noun
“The big grey dog by the S1 S2 S3
table in the corner”

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 30

 Knowledge Representation
• Predicate Logic
– On(table, lamp)
– In(corner, table)
– Near(table, dog)
– Prolog
• Graph Based
– Semantic Networks
– Frames
• Rule Based
– Expert Systems

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 31

 Planning
• Robotics
– If a robot enters a
room and sits down,
what is the “route”.
Table

• Closed world
• Rule based Chair

systems
• Blocks world

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 32

 Planning
Robot
• Pickup(x) Hand
– Ontable(x), clear(x),
handempty(),
– Holding(x) C
• Putdown(x) A B
– Holding(x)
Clear(B) On(C, A) OnTable(A)
– Ontable(x), clear(x),
Clear(C) Handempty OnTable(B)
handempty()
• Stack(x, y)
– Holding(x), clear(y)
– Handempty(), on(x, y), A
clear(x)
• Unstack(x, y) B
– Handempty(), clear(x),
on(x, y) C
– Holding(x), clear(x) Goal: [On(B, C) ^ On(A,
B)]

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 33

 Learning
• Neural Networks
• Evolutionary Computing
• Knowledge in Learning
• Reinforcement Learning

January 11, 2006 AI: Chapter 1: Introduction 34