Digital Design

“Introduction to Digital
Systems”
 Resources

 Chapter #1, Mano Sections

 1.1 Digital Computers
 1.2 Number Systems
 1.3 Arithmetic Operations
 1.4 Decimal Codes
 1.5 Alphanumeric Codes

2
 Topics

 Computing Devices and VLSI Design

 Signals (Digital vs. Analog)
 Digital Systems and Computers
 Number systems [binary, octal, hex]
 Base Conversion
 Arithmetic Operations
 Decimal Codes [BCD]
 Alphanumeric Codes

3
Digital Systems

4
 Computing Devices Everywhere!
“Embedded Systems”

PDA Car
PC

Home Networking

Game console Household

Body

Super Computer Medicine

Entertainment

Communication

What is the main enabler to such digital systems? 5

 The Transistor Revolution

Bipolar logic • Intel 4004 processor

First transistor • Designed in 1971
Bell Labs, 1948 1960’s
• Almost 3000 transistors
• Speed:1 MHz operation

6
 The VLSI Design Cycle
Specification SYSTEM

Functional design MODULE

+

Logic design
GATE

Circuit design
CIRCUIT

Physical design

Test/Fabrication G DEVICE
S D
n+ n+
 1.3 VLSI Design Styles Vdd Contact

Metal layer

© KLMH
Vdd IN2 Poly layer
IN2
IN1 OUT Diffusion layer
OUT
IN1 p-type
transistor

n-type
GND
transistor
GND
IN1
OUT
IN2 Power (Vdd)-Rail

Ground (GND)-Rail
8

Lienig
Signals

9
 Signals
 An information variable represented by a
physical quantity (speech, Temp, humidty,
noise, …)

10
 Signals

Signals can be analog or digital:

1.Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a

range;

2.Digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

11
 Analog Signals

Time

Analog Continuous
in value &
time

12
 Digital Signals

 For digital systems, the variable takes

on discrete values (i.e., not continuous)

Time

Digital
Discrete in
value
13
 Signal Examples Over Time

 Digital (Binary) values are represented by:

 digits 0 and 1 / False (F) and True (T)
 words (symbols) Low (L) and High (H)
 words On and Off.

Time Discrete in
value &
Asynchronous continuous
Digital in time
Discrete in
Synchronous
value &
time 14
 Binary Values: Other Physical Quantities
What are other physical quantities represent 0
and 1?
CPU: Voltage Hard Drive: Magnetic Field Direction

CD: Surface Pits/Light

Dynamic Ram: Electric Charge

15
 A Digital Computer Example
Data/Instructions/code
All in 01010010010

Memory

clock
Control
CPU unit Datapath

Inputs:
Input/Output
Outputs: CRT,
Keyboard,
LCD, modem,
mouse, modem,
speakers
microphone

16
 Number
Representation

17
Number Systems – Representation

 A number with radix r is represented by a

string of digits:
An - 1An - 2 … A1A0 . A- 1 A- 2 … A- m  1 A- m
in which 0 Ai < r and “.” is the radix
point.
 The string of digits represents the power series:
 r   r
i=n-1 j=-1
(Number)r = i j
Ai Aj
i=0 j=-m
(Integer Portion) + (Fraction Portion)
18
 Decimal Number System

 Base (also called radix) = 10

● 10 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 }
 Digit Position 2 1 0 -1 -2

● Integer & fraction 5 1 2 7 4

 Formal Notation (512.74)10

100 10 1 0.1 0.01
 Digit Weight
● Weight = (Base) Position
500 10 2 0.7 0.04
 Magnitude
● Sum of “Digit x Weight” d2*B2+d1*B1+d0*B0+d-1*B-1+d-2*B-2
19
 Octal Number System
 Base = 8
● 8 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 }
 Weights 64 8 1 1/8 1/64

● Weight = (Base) Position 5 1 2 7 4

2 1 0 -1 -2

 Formal Notation (512.74)8

 Magnitude 5 *8 2+1 *8 1+2 *8 0+7 *8- 1+4 *8 -2

● Sum of “Digit x Weight” =(330.9375)10

20
 Octal Number System: Example

 For Example,
 (27) can be expressed as: ( )10
8

 (17.1)8 can be expressed as: ( )10

21
 Hexadecimal Number System
 Base = 16
● 16 digits { 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F }
 Weights 256 16 1 1/16 1/256

● Weight = (Base) Position 1 E 5 7 A

2 1 0 -1 -2
 Formal Notation
(1E5.7A)16
 Magnitude 1 *162+14 *161+5 *160+7 *16-1+10 *16-2

● Sum of “Digit x Weight” =(485.4765625)10

22
 Hex to Decimal Dec Hex
0 0
1 1
2 2
 Just multiply each hex digit by
3 3
decimal value, and add the results.
4 4
5 5
6 6
(2ac)16 7 7
8 8

2 • 256 + 10 • 16 + 12 • 1 = (684)10 9 9
10 a
11 b
   
12 c
163 162 161 160 13 d
4096 256 16 1 14 e
15 f
23
Binary Numbers

24
 Binary Number System
 Base = 2
● 2 digits { 0, 1 }, called binary digits or “bits”

 Weights 4 2 1 1/2 1/4

Position 1 0 1 0 1
● Weight = (Base)
2 1 0 -1 -2
 Magnitude 2 1 0 -1
1 *2 +0 *2 +1 *2 +0 *2 +1 *2
-2

● Sum of “Bit x Weight” =(5.25)10

 Formal Notation (101.01)2
 Groups of bits 4 bits = Nibble 1011

8 bits = Byte 11000101

25
 Binary  Decimal: Example

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 position

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 value

128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1

What is 10011100 in decimal?

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 position

1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 Binary #

128 + 0 + 0 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = (156)
26
 Binary Numbers
 Examples:
 (00)2  (0)10
 (01)2  (1)10
 (0000001)2  (1)10
 (10)2  (2)10
 (010)2  (2)10
 (11)2  (3)10
 (100)2  (4)10
 (1001010101000)2

Strings of binary digits (“bits”)

 One bit can store a number from 0 to 1
 n bits can store numbers from 0 to 2 n-1
27
 Binary Fractions

2i
2i-1
4 Integer Values
2
1
bi bi-1 ... b2 b1 b0 b-1 b-2 b-3 … b-j

1/2
Fractional Values 1/4

1/8

2-j

decimal number =

28
 Example 1

1 1 0 . 1 12

1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 1x2-2

6 and 3/4

29
 Example 2

0 . 1 1 1 1 1 12

0 x 20 + 1 x 2-1 + 1x2-2 + 1x2-3 + 1x2-4 + 1x2-5 + 1x2-6

63/64

Note: (1) Numbers of the form 0.11111…2 are just below 1.0
(2) Short form notation for such numbers is 1.0 - ε

30
 Why Binary?
 This is easier to implement in hardware than a unit
that can take on 10 different values.
● For instance, it can be represented by a transistor being
off (0) or on (1).
● Alternatively, it can be a magnetic stripe that is
magnetized with North in one direction (0) or the
opposite (1).
 Binary also has a convenient and natural
association with logical values of:
● False (0) and
● True (1).
31
 The Power of 2
n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512
2 22=4 10 210=1024 Kilo

3 23=8 11 211=2048
4 24=16 12 212=4096
5 25=32 20 220=1M Mega

6 26=64 30 230=1G Giga

7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera

32
Base Conversion

33
Number Base Conversions
Evaluate
Magnitude
Octal
(Base 8)

Evaluate
Magnitude
Decimal Binary
(Base 10) (Base 2)

Hexadecimal
(Base 16)
Evaluate
Magnitude 34
Conversion Between Bases

 To convert from one base to another:

1) Convert the Integer Part
2) Convert the Fraction Part
3) Join the two results with a radix point

35
Decimal to Binary Conversion
 Decimal (Integer) to Binary Conversion

 Divide the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

 Take the remainder (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the quotient and repeat the division

Example: (13)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
13/ 2 = 6 1 a0 = 1
6 /2= 3 0 a1 = 0
3 /2= 1 1 a2 = 1
1 /2= 0 1 a3 = 1
Answer: (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

MSB LSB
37
 Decimal (Fraction) to Binary Conversion

 Multiply the number by the ‘Base’ (=2)

 Take the integer (either 0 or 1) as a coefficient
 Take the resultant fraction and repeat multiplication

Example: (0.625)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.625 * 2 = 1 . 25 a-1 = 1
0.25 * 2 = 0 . 5 a-2 = 0
0.5 *2= 1 . 0 a-3 = 1
Answer: (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)2 = (0.101)2

MSB LSB
38
Decimal to Octal Conversion
Example: (175)10
Quotient Remainder Coefficient
175 / 8 = 21 7 a0 = 7
21 / 8 = 2 5 a1 = 5
2 /8= 0 2 a2 = 2
Answer: (175)10 = (a2 a1 a0)8 = (257)8

Example: (0.3125)10
Integer Fraction Coefficient
0.3125 * 8 = 2 . 5 a-1 = 2
0.5 *8= 4 . 0 a-2 = 4
Answer: (0.3125)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3)8 = (0.24)8

39
 Decimal to Hex Dec Hex
0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
(684)10 4 4
684/16 = 42 rem 12=c c 5 5
6 6
7 7
42/16 = 2 rem 10=a ac 8 8
9 9
10 a
2/16 = 0 rem 2 2ac 11 b
12 c
   
13 d
163
16 2
16
1
16 0
14 e
4096 256 16 1 15 f
40
 Hexadecimal (Base 16)
 Strings of 0’s and 1’s too hard to write
 Use base-16 or hexadecimal – 4 bits

Dec Bin Hex Dec Bin Hex

0 0000 0 8 1000 8
1 0001 1 9 1001 9
2 0010 2 10 1010 a Why use
3 0011 3 11 1011 b base 16?
4 0100 4 12 1100 c
5 0101 5 13 1101 d •Power of 2
6 0110 6 14 1110 e •Size of byte
7 0111 7 15 1111 f
41
 Hex to Binary Bin
0000
Hex
0
0001 1
0010 2
 Convention – write 0x (prefix)
0011 3
before number 0100 4
 Hex to Binary – just convert digits 0101 5
0110 6
0111 7

0x2ac (2ac)16 1000

1001
8
9
1010 a
1011 b
0010 1010 1100 1100 c
1101 d
0x2ac = (001010101100)2 1110 e

No magic – remember hex digit = 4 bits 1111 f

42
Binary − Hexadecimal Conversion
 16 = 24 Hex Binary
0 0000
 Each group of 4 bits represents 1
2
0001
0010
a hexadecimal digit 3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
Pad with Zeros 6 0110
Example:
7 0111
8 1000
( 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 )2 9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
(1 6 . 4 )16 E 1110
F 1111
Works both ways (Binary to Hex & Hex to Binary)
43
 Binary to Hex Bin Hex
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
 Just convert groups of 4 bits
0011 3
0100 4

(101001101111011)2 0101 5
0110 6

0101  0011  0111  1011 0111

1000
7
8
1001 9
1010 a
5 3 7 b 1011 b
1100 c
1101 d
(101001101111011)2 = 0x537b = (537b)16 1110 e
1111 f

44
Octal − Hexadecimal Conversion
 Convert to Binary as an intermediate step
Example:
( 2 6 . 2 )8

Assume Zeros Assume Zeros

( 0 1 0 1 1 0 . 0 1 0 )2

(1 6 . 4 )16

Works both ways (Octal to Hex & Hex to Octal)

45