Introduction to

Vibrations
Definition ofmotion
• Vibration is the oscillatory Vibration
around an equilibrium
point, involving repetitive movement due to internal or
external forces.
• It can occur in natural systems (like earthquakes) or man-
made systems (like engines) and can be either desirable
(musical instruments) or undesirable (structural
resonance).

Key Terms

• Amplitude: Maximum displacement from the equilibrium

position.
• Frequency: Number of oscillations per unit time (measured
in Hertz, Hz).
• Period: Time taken to complete one cycle of oscillation.
• Damping: Energy dissipation mechanism reducing the
amplitude of vibration over time.
History of
Vibrations
Ancient Observations (2000 BCE - 400 BCE) 18th Century - Development of Vibrational Theory
01 Early studies of natural vibrations were noted in ancient civilizations:
02 Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783) and Daniel Bernoulli (1700 - 1782):
Chinese and Egyptian engineers observed resonance in building Developed the wave equation and theories on vibrating strings and
structures and musical instruments. beams.
Pythagoras (circa 500 BCE) discovered relationships between musical
tones and string length, leading to an early understanding of frequency.

20th Century - Practical Applications and Modern Era - Computational and Experimental
03 Technological Advances 04 Innovations
Advances in engineering and materials science allowed for precise Digital Signal Processing (DSP) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA):
control of vibrations in structures, vehicles, and electronic devices. Revolutionized vibration analysis in engineering, enabling detailed
Control and Analysis Methods: Emergence of damping technologies, simulation and control in design.
finite element analysis (FEA), and computational models for analyzing Applications in Aerospace, Automotive, and Civil Engineering: Vibrations
complex vibrating systems. are controlled and optimized for safety, comfort, and efficiency.
Why Vibrations
Are Important
Structural Safety
Example: Buildings, bridges, and towers need to withstand vibrations from wind, traffic, and
earthquakes.
Importance: Proper vibration analysis ensures stability and prevents catastrophic failures due to
resonance or fatigue.

Durability and Maintenance in Machinery

Example: Engines, turbines, and industrial machines.
Importance: Managing vibrations reduces wear and tear, extends the life of equipment, and
minimizes the risk of breakdowns.

Comfort and Noise Reduction

Example: Car suspensions, building acoustics, noise-canceling devices.
Importance: Vibration control enhances user comfort and reduces unwanted noise in daily
environments.

Precision in Electronics and Instruments

Example: Sensors, gyroscopes, medical imaging equipment.
Importance: Tiny vibrations are controlled for high accuracy in technology used for measurement,
navigation, and diagnostics.

Natural Disaster Preparedness

Example: Earthquake-resistant buildings and early warning systems.
Importance: Understanding and controlling vibrations helps in designing resilient infrastructure and
 Merits of Vibrations:
01 • Energy Transfer: Vibrations help in the transfer of energy in
systems like mechanical resonators and waveguides.
• Machinery Operation: In certain mechanical systems,
vibrations are essential for operation, such as in engines or
compressors.

Merits
• Material Testing: Vibrations are used in testing material
properties and for non-destructive testing methods.
• Enhanced Mixing/Processing: Vibrations aid in mixing
materials in industrial processes, improving efficiency.

and
• Sensor Technologies: Vibrations are used in sensors (e.g.,
accelerometers, seismic sensors) to detect changes in
environmental conditions.

Demerits Demerits of Vibrations:

of 02 • Damage to Structures: Excessive vibrations can cause fatigue

and eventual failure of materials or structural components.
• Noise Pollution: Vibrations can lead to unwanted noise,
contributing to noise pollution in residential and industrial

Vibration areas.
• Energy Loss: Uncontrolled vibrations may lead to loss of
energy in mechanical systems, affecting performance.
• Discomfort: In vehicles and buildings, vibrations can lead to

s
discomfort or health issues for occupants.
• Interference with Electronics: Vibrations can cause instability
in sensitive electronic devices, affecting their functionality.
Resonance
in
Vibrations
Definition:
Resonance occurs when a system is driven at its natural frequency, causing it to oscillate with
maximum amplitude.

Key Points:
Natural Frequency: Every object or system has a natural frequency at which it prefers to vibrate.
Amplification of Vibrations: When the frequency of an external force matches the natural
frequency, the amplitude of the system’s vibrations increases dramatically.

Examples of Resonance:
Swinging: A person pushing a swing at the right moment (matching the natural frequency) causes
higher amplitude swings.
Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse: The collapse was caused by resonance from wind gusts
matching the bridge’s natural frequency.
Musical Instruments: Resonance amplifies sound in instruments like guitars and pianos.

Merits:
Used in musical instruments to produce sound.
Tuning of systems: Used in devices like radios and televisions to select desired frequencies.

Demerits:
Structural damage: Can cause failure of buildings, bridges, or mechanical structures if not
controlled.
Mechanical failure: In machines or engines, resonance can lead to vibrations that damage
components.
Classification of
Vibrations
1. Based on Degrees of Freedom:

• Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF): System with one

independent coordinate (e.g., mass-spring system).
• Multi-Degree of Freedom (MDOF): System with multiple
independent coordinates (e.g., buildings, machinery).

2. Based on Type of Motion:

• Free Vibration: Occurs without external force after

disturbance.
• Forced Vibration: Caused by an external continuous force.

3. Based on Damping:

• Undamped Vibration: No energy loss, amplitude constant.

• Damped Vibration: Energy is lost, amplitude decreases
over time.
 Undamped vibrations
..
k k(x+ mx
k k k

m m

m m
mg mg
x Free Body diagrams

• When no external force acts on the body after giving it an initial displacement, then the body is
said to be under free vibration or natural vibration.
• If there is no loss of energy due to friction or resistance through out motion of the system, then
the vibration is called undamped free vibration.
Why Resonance Doesn't Occur in Purely Free Vibrations
•In undamped free vibrations, no continuous external force is applied. The system vibrates on its own at the natural
frequency after being set into motion.
•Since there's no continuous source of energy input, the amplitude doesn’t build up indefinitely, so resonance, in the typical
sense, doesn’t occur.
•Instead, the system vibrates at its natural frequency with a constant amplitude determined by the initial conditions (initial
displacement or velocity).
Damped free vibrations it’s components and significance

Components of Damped Free Vibrations

•Mass (m): The mass of the system that undergoes vibration. In mechanical systems, this mass is part of the object or structure
that oscillates.
•Stiffness (k): The restoring force of the system, often provided by a spring or an elastic component. The stiffness determines the
natural frequency of the system.
•Damping (c): The damping force opposes the motion and is responsible for energy dissipation in the system. It can be due to
friction, air resistance, material properties, or other factors.
•Initial Conditions: The initial displacement and/or velocity imparted to the system at the start. These determine the initial
amplitude of vibration
Types of
Damping in
Damped
Vibrations
Underdamping:
Description: The system oscillates, but the amplitude gradually decreases over time.
Key Features:
Occurs when damping is small.
The system continues oscillating for several cycles before coming to rest.
Example: A car suspension system in regular use.

2. Critical Damping:
Description: The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible without oscillating.
Key Features:
Damping is at just the right level to prevent oscillations.
Example: A door closing without bouncing back.

3. Overdamping:
Description: The system returns to equilibrium slowly, without oscillating, but with slower decay in amplitude
than critical damping.
Key Features:
Damping is excessive, causing the system to take longer to settle.
Example: A car suspension system with too much resistance, leading to a rougher ride.
Types of Damping structures
The following are the common types of damping;
(i) Viscous damping: (Due to a viscous medium such as a fluid dashpot)
(ii) Eddy current damping: (Due to generation of eddy currents which sets up a magnetic field which in turn
opposes the motion of the body)
(iii) Coulomb damping: (Due to dry friction between sliding surfaces)
(iv) Solid or structural or Hysteresis damping: (Due to internal friction of the molecules)
(v) Slip or interfacial damping: Due to microscopic slip due to fluctuating loads in machine parts in contact

Different damping used in different applications

• Vibration absorbing material could be 10% or greater

• Composite structure 3% - 10%

• Rusty structure, friction clamps throughout 5% - 10%

• Clean metallic structure bolted, riveted joints throughout 3% – 6%

• Clean integrally machined structure 2% to 4%

• Clean room integrally machined specially designed 1% to 2%

 What are Mode Shapes?
What are Definition: Mode shapes are the specific patterns of vibration that a system exhibits at its natural

Mode
frequencies. Each mode corresponds to a distinct frequency where the structure vibrates most
efficiently.

Shapes? Key Points:

• Natural frequencies are specific frequencies at which a system vibrates with maximum amplitude.
• Each natural frequency has an associated mode shape that describes the deformation pattern of the
structure.

Importance:
• Critical for ensuring structural integrity.
• Aids in effective vibration analysis.
• Helps engineers design structures to avoid resonance and prevent failures.

Types of Mode Shapes:

• Translational Mode Shapes: Movement in one direction.
• Rotational Mode Shapes: Rotation about a fixed axis.
• Flexural Mode Shapes: Bending or flexing (common in beams/plates).
• Torsional Mode Shapes: Twisting around an axis.
 Importance of mode identification

• For a realistic model there are thousands of DOF hence thousands of natural frequencies
• Very high frequency modes can be neglected and not every mode participates at the same level to the deformation of the
structure under dynamic load
• To find the most important natural frequencies , two most simples scalars are used these are mode participation and
efficient mass

• The square of the participation factor is the effective mass . These scalar factors measure the amount of mass moving in
each direction , the vector D represents the participation factor is calculated in .
• A high value in a direction indicates that the mode will be excited by forces in the same direction.
• The ratio of effective mass to total mass must be close to 1 , If it is close to 1 that means significant modes have been
extracted which is good enough as high natural frequency should be avoided
 • 12 modes are extracted for this structure
. • The data shows the participation factor and the effective mass calculated in the z direction.
• Modes 1, 5 and 11 contribute significantly to deformation in the z direction. These modes are most easily excited in
vibration.
Rigid mode

For every DOF in which a structure is not totally constrained, it allows a Rigid Body Mode (stress-free mode) or a mechanism

Rigid modes are expected for grounding checking process , Rigid modes with non zero frequency
indicates that there are artificial internal constraints in the system which need to be eliminated. The
first 6-12 modes of the object in free-free run method is 0 this is done to verify if the systems does not
have any pre constraints in the body which are known as Rigid modes
Transmissibility in Vibrations

Definition:
• Transmissibility refers to the ratio of the Transmissibility
amplitude of vibration transmitted to a
system compared to the amplitude of
Formula
the input or source vibration.
• It measures how much vibration is
passed from one part of a system to
another.

Importance:

Understanding transmissibility helps in

designing systems to control or reduce
vibrations, such as in machinery, vehicles,
and structures.
Transmissibility vs r ratio
graph (i)" When " r<√2, ε>1". "
i.e." the transmitted force
"
" is always more than the
impressed force."
(ii)" When " r>√2, ε<1". "
i.e." the transmitted force
"
" is always less than the
impressed force."
(iii)" When " r=√2, ε=1".
" i.e." the transmitted
force "
" is always equal to the
impressed force."
(iv)" When " r=1," the
transmitted force is
maximum"
" which can be reduced
by damping."
(v)" When " r>√2,"
increase in damping
increases " ε.
" Hence damping is
Why Higher Damping Means Higher Transmissibility for r>1:

Low Damping: With low damping, the system doesn’t resist motion as much, allowing it to react more freely and naturally to the
higher-frequency forces. This means that at high-frequency ratios, it more effectively "filters out" the input vibrations, resulting
in lower transmissibility.
High Damping: High damping introduces a resistive force that acts against motion. At higher frequency ratios, this damping force
slightly prevents the system from fully decoupling from the excitation, causing it to “transmit” a bit more of the vibration
compared to a low-damping system

Why does the peak of the curves with higher damping occur before resonance and not at resonance

Damping provides a resistive force that opposes the motion of the system. As damping increases, this resistive force becomes
stronger, effectively reducing the responsiveness of the system to external vibrations at higher frequencies. Because of this
resistive effect, the system can no longer achieve its maximum response exactly at the natural frequency. Instead, the peak
transmissibility occurs at a slightly lower frequency, where the effect of damping is less overwhelming, allowing a more
pronounced response than at the natural frequency.

Engineering Implications:
•In applications where avoiding resonance is crucial (e.g., mechanical systems, buildings, or vehicles), adding damping
is essential to lower transmissibility at resonance.
•For systems operating at frequencies higher than their natural frequency, adding damping may be less critical, as
transmissibility is already low in this region.
•Optimizing damping in systems subject to periodic forces can help mitigate vibrations, especially around natural
frequencies, enhancing stability and reducing wear and tear.