Network standards

& the OSI model

Chapter outlines
Internet Packet: Definition & Explanation
OS Model
Compare the rules of the MAC addresses and the IP address
Describe the purpose of ARP
 Internet Packet: Definition
& Explanation

Today, individuals and businesspeople transmit billions of

messages electronically every day, having their messages
sent and delivered in seconds. To accomplish this high-speed
delivery, message contents and communicative information
are packaged into small groups called Internet packets.

These Internet packets, referred to as data packets, are

formatted, addressed, and sent using common Internet
communication protocols, such as the Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
Key Terms
 Internet Protocol (IP) Address

Since the Internet is comprised of a global network of computers, there must be a way to
identify each computer and device connected. That's where Internet Protocol (or IP) comes in.
Everything connected to the Internet has an IP address. That includes computers, servers, cell
phones and any other equipment.

All of these have a unique IP address in order to connect to the Internet. The IP address allows
each computer connected to the Internet to be identified. The IP address is like your home
address. If someone wants to send you a letter, they need to know your full address.

The IP address will take the form of four sets of numbers. Each number must be between 0 and
255. For example, 12.125.30.102 is a sample of an IP address.
Key Terms
 Communication (TCP/IP)

Once your computer connects to the Internet it must be able to communicate with
other computers and devices. Computer networks have rules for communication
known as protocols. They are necessary for proper communication to take place.

TCP/IP or Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol is a communication

protocol suite that is particularly important for the Internet to function. Simply put, it
establishes rules for how information passes through the Internet. When you want to
send and receive information over the Internet, the TCP/IP protocol suite is what
makes it possible
Key Terms
 A network address, which are unique identifiers applicable to specific
network computer; the network address identifies the data packet's intended
recipient.

 A network protocol, which establishes the guidelines and conventions to

send and receive messages formatted as data packets.
 A data packet, which is essentially a container used to convey data or
information via TCP/IP or similar protocol; the data packet contains (among
other information) the IP address of the intended recipient, source data, and
network information.
Key Terms
 MAC Addresses

The MAC (Media Access Control) addresses work along with IP addresses on a network
device for communication.
To communicate on a network, a device must have functioning hardware, which
includes a Network Interface Card (NIC). The NIC is a piece of hardware with a circuitry
card that allows it to communicate on the network, much like an electric plug allows an
electronic device to operate.
Every NIC has a unique identifier called a MAC address, also known as an Ethernet
address. This identifier consists of a series of 48-bit numbers that are linked to the
hardware circuitry of the NIC. The MAC address is usually hardwired into the NIC during
manufacture and cannot be altered.
MAC Address Example: 00-14-22-01-23-45
Data Packet Description
 A data packet is composed of binary data (ones and zeros) formatted to allow
movement along a computer network.

 Transmitted data arrives as individual data packets; each packet contains several
sections. There is a header section composed of packet origin and packet destination
information.

 The header section is followed by the message body (or payload), which in turn is
followed by the packet footer (or trailer). Typically, the packet footer contains ending or
termination instructions.

This process of sending and receiving data packets is referred to as packet-switching.

Data Packet
Description
Upon receipt, the receiving
device reassembles the individual
packets returning the message to
its original form. Part of the re-
assembly process requires the
removal of header and footer
information and the concatenation
of individual packets placing the
packets in their proper order.
Data Packet Composition
 An IP presently has 2 basic versions: IPv4 and IPv6. Though IPv6 is more advanced
and faster than IPv4, many organizations still use IPv4.

 Typically, an IPv4 packet is composed of the 14 fields shown in the following table

 It's important to note that

bit distribution among
fields may vary but will
equal a total packet length
of 32 bits.
Data Packet
Composition
 IPv6 packet is also composed
of several fields, and they are
divided between a set of
headers, the basic or fixed IPv6
header, and the IPv6 extension
headers. The basic or fixed
header consists of 8 fields that
contain data that is necessary
for routing and delivery.
Data Packet Composition
The Extension Header contains supplementary
information used by network devices to decide how to
direct or process an IPv6 packet.
The following list describes the 6 extension
headers:
1.Routing
2.Fragmentation
3.Authentication
4.Encapsulating Security Payload
5.Hop-by-hop options
6.Destination options
Packet Loss
 Even though data is being sent and received at an acceptable rate, there's a
chance that not all of the data packets are getting to the destination intact; this
problem is referred to as packet loss.
 The difference between one application having packet loss while another
doesn't is dependent upon how the data is being transmitted, what servers are
used, and the route taken.
OSI Model: Using Open Systems Interconnection to
Send and Receive Data

What is the OSI Model?

The OSI model is a conceptual model that describes what a networking

system does. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) divides the entire
system into several layers, which helps transmit information from one
computer system's software application to another.
OSI Model: Using Open Systems
Interconnection to Send and
Receive Data
7 Layers of the OSI Model
The central concept behind OSI is that sending
and receiving data over a network can be divided
into seven layers of related functions. These
layers are responsible for breaking down data
transmission through the entire network system.
The seven layers of the OSI model include the
application layer, presentation layer, session
layer, transport layer, network layer, data link
layer, and physical layer.
OSI Model Example
Application Layer: For example, when someone opens a web browser and types in a URL, the application layer handles the request
and returns the website an individual requested.
Presentation Layer: It formats and presents data to the end user in an understandable manner. For instance, a word processor is a
presentation layer that takes the data that someone inputs and formats it so it can be displayed on the screen.
Session Layer: Establishes/manages/terminates a communication session between two devices. An example would be a phone call.
The session layer is responsible for setting up, maintaining, and terminating the call.
Transport Layer: Responsible for the delivery of data from one device to another. An example of the transport layer would be a phone
call. Generally, this layer ensures that data is delivered reliably and in the correct order.
Network Layer: Routes packets across the internetwork. For example, a computer on a local network communicates with another on a
different web by sending the data to a router. The router will look at the destination IP address and determine which network the
computer is on. It will then send the data to the next router closer to the destination until it reaches the correct network.
Data Link Layer: It detects and corrects errors, providing flow control and reliable data transfer between two nodes on a network. For
example, when one sends an email, the data link layer will ensure that the email is delivered to the recipient without any errors.
Physical Layer: Transmits raw data bits over a physical medium. For example, when an individual sends an email, the physical layer is
responsible for sending the raw data bits that make up the email over the physical medium, which in this case is the internet.
Compare the rules of the MAC addresses and the IP address

There are two primary addresses assigned to a device

on an Ethernet LAN:
• Layer 2 physical address (the MAC address) –
Used for NIC to NIC communications on the same
Ethernet network.
• Layer 3 logical address (the IP address) – Used to
send the packet from the source device to the
destination device.
Layer 2 addresses are used to deliver frames from
one NIC to another NIC on the same network. If a
destination IP address is on the same network, the
destination MAC address will be that of the
destination device.
Compare the rules of the MAC addresses and the IP address
When the destination IP address is on a remote network, the destination MAC address is that of the default
gateway.
ARP is used by IPv4 to associate the IPv4 address of a device with the MAC address of the device NIC.
IPv6 uses a protocol called Neighbor Discovery Protocol (NDP) to determine the link-layer address (which
could be a MAC address in Ethernet networks) of a device that has a particular IPv6 address .
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

The MAC address is also known as the data link

layer, which establishes and terminates a
connection between two physically connected
devices so that data transfer can take place. The IP
address is also referred to as the network layer or
the layer responsible for forwarding packets of data
through different routers. ARP works between
these layers.
 ARP is Address Resolution Protocol, it is used to
resolve IP addresses into MAC addresses, meaning
the IP address is already known, but the MAC is
not. The reason why we need ARP is
because computers need to know both the IP
address and the MAC address of a destination
before they can start network communication.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

 ARP provides two basic functions:

• Resolving IPv4 addresses to MAC addresses
• Maintaining an ARP table of IPv4 to MAC address mappings

 ARP Functions

To send a frame, a device will search its ARP table for a destination IPv4 address and a corresponding MAC address.
• If the packet’s destination IPv4 address is on the same network, the device will search the ARP table for the
destination IPv4 address.
• If the destination IPv4 address is on a different network, the device will search the ARP table for the IPv4 address of
the default gateway.
• If the device locates the IPv4 address, its corresponding MAC address is used as the destination MAC address in the
frame.
• If there is no ARP table entry is found, then the device sends an ARP request.
 Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP)

Removing Entries from an ARP Table

• Entries in the ARP table are not
permanent and are removed
when an ARP cache timer expires
after a specified period of time.
• The duration of the ARP cache
timer differs depending on the
operating system.
• ARP table entries can also be
removed manually by the
administrator.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

 ARP Issues – ARP Broadcasting and ARP

Spoofing
• ARP requests are received and processed by
every device on the local network.
• Excessive ARP broadcasts can cause some
reduction in performance.
• ARP replies can be spoofed by a threat actor
to perform an ARP poisoning attack.
• Enterprise level switches include mitigation
techniques to protect against ARP attacks.
 Summary
 IP Addresses are a series of numbers that are used by any remote node to identify a device within a network
environment. They carry the complete addressing information to locate a device's network. MAC addresses on
the other hand are Ethernet addresses hardwired into the NIC of the device. They are permanent can carry no
addressing information. They only identify the device on its LAN.

 The ISO is a worldwide organization that created the suggested communications standards that describe
sending and receiving data over a network.
 In conclusion, the OSI typically organizes computer protocols into seven separate layers. The model is helpful
because it allows computer programmers to design protocols that work together without needing to know the
details of how each protocol works. The model also allows different protocols to be used in different layers,
making it possible to update or replace protocols without affecting the other protocols in the stack.
 ARP is Address Resolution Protocol; it is used to resolve IP addresses into MAC addresses.

 Maintaining an ARP table of IPv4 to MAC address mappings is an important part of network communication in
IPv4 networks. The ARP table is a cache of recently resolved mappings that are used to speed up the process
of sending data on the network. Devices automatically update their ARP tables as they communicate with
other devices on the network, and entries in the ARP table may have a limited lifespan.