Sub-cortical structures

BASAL GANGLIA

It is the collective name for three large sub-cortical

structures( Primary structures ).They are called the
caudate nucleus, putamen and globus pallidus
Caudate nucleus + Putamen= striatum
putamen+globus pallidus=lenticular nucleus
striatum+ globus pallidus=corpus striatum
Secondary structures: brainstem structures
which have functional connection with BG
includes:
a) Substantia nigra :It is a melanin containing
(Pigmented) nucleus in the ventral midbrain.
b) Subthalamic nucleus: It is a small lens
shaped nuclues.
Caudate nucleus:
• C shaped structure with an elongated mass, a large
head, and a narrow tail.

• Head of caudate embedded in the lateral wall of the

anterior horn of the lateral ventricles.

• The tail extends along the wall of the lateral ventricle

and continues along the surface of the inferior horn in
the temporal lobe and terminates in the amygdaloid
nucleus.
• Basal ganglia has extremely complex neural
connections with many cortical and sub cortical
structures.
• They receive neural impulse from all areas of
the cortex.
• Much of the neural output from BG is sent to
thalamus.
• They help to regulate and control motor
movements and muscle tone.
• BG is important i the planning of slow,
continuous movements.
• Many neurons of the striatum are dependent
on dopamine for proper functioning. If
dopamine level is lowered in the striatum, the
results may include muscular rigidity tremor,
gait disturbance and difficulty in initiating
movement.
Thalamus
• Another important sub-cortical
grey matter structure.
• It is located behind the basal
ganglia .
• Anatomically it is a two lobed
structure represented in two
hemispheres.

• The two thalami are prominent

bulb-shaped / egg shaped masses,
about 5.7cm in length, located
obliquely (about 30degree) and
symmetrically on each side of the
third ventricle.
• It is the doorway through which the sub-
cortical structures communicate with the
cerebral cortex.
• It receives neural input of planned motor
movements from both the basal ganglia and
the cerebellum.
• Exactly what it does with these signals is not
precisely understood.
• Practically every sensory impulse from the
body passes through the thalamus on its way
to the cortex.
• It is believed that the thalamus uses this
sensory information to further refine the
motor impulses from the basal ganglia and
cerebellum.
 Functions of thalamus
• Sensory motor control (relay functions)
• Crude sensations of pain, touch, temperature, vibration
and taste can be appreciated at thalamus
• Thalamus mediates overall alertness and tuning of
cortical structures
• Evidence shows that some speech and language
functions are asymmetrically lateralized even at
thalamic level, like in the cortical structures. It is
responsible for integration of speech and language
functions.
 Limbic system

• Complex set of structures that lies in both hemispheres

underneath the thalamus, just under the cerebrum.
• Includes hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and
several other nearby areas.
• It is primarily responsible for emotional control and
memory.
Hippocampus
• Consists of two horns that curve back from the
amygdala. It is important in converting short term
memory into long term memory. If the hippocampus is
damaged, it affects the memory of a person.
Amygdala
• 2 almond-shaped masses of neurons
on either side of the thalamus at the
lower end of the hippocampus.
• Aggressive behavior and fear
attributed to this.

Hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus is a small region of the
brain. It’s located at the base of the
brain, near the pituitary gland. It is a
small cone-shaped structure

• While it’s very small, the

hypothalamus plays a crucial role in
many important functions, including:
• releasing hormones
• regulating body temperature
• maintaining daily physiological cycles
• controlling appetite
• managing of sexual behavior
• regulating emotional responses
• It has regulatory areas for thirst, hunger, body
temperature, water balance, and blood pressure, and
links the nervous system to the endocrine system.
• Other related areas include:
1) Cingulate gyrus: provides pathway from thalamus to
hippocampus-responsible for attention and associated
memories for smell and pain

2) Basal ganglia: (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus,

substantia nigra) lie above and to the sides of the limbic
system and are connected to the cortex. Connections from
basal ganglia have an indirect influence on the limbic
system.

3) The prefrontal cortex is closely linked to limbic system,

responsible for planning.
 CEREBELLUM
• Helps to regulate the muscle tone, maintain
balance and coordinate skilled motor
movements.
• It attached to the back of the brainstem and
lies just below the occipital lobe of the
cerebrum
• Cerebellum also receives neural impulses of
intended motor movements from the association
cortex.
• In addition, it receives sensory input from the
vestibular labyrinth of the inner ear, and from
visual,auditory, tactile and proprioceptive sensory
receptors located throughout the body, all of
which gives the cerebellum access to information
about the body balance, position and posture.
• The cerebellum adjusts and refines the motor
impulses and sends these processed motor
signals to primary motor cortex via the thalamus.
• The motor speech disorder associated with
cerebellar lesion is ataxic dysarthria.
• In ataxia, there will be disturbance in the speed,
range and direction of movements.
• Intention tremor also present for individual with
cerebellar lesion.
 Neural Pathways To and From the
Cerebellum
• THE CEREBELLUM IS attached to the brainstem
and commubicates with the rest of the CNS
through three bundles of neural tract called
the cerebellar peduncles.
• By exchanging information through these
neural tracts, the cerebellum is able to
monitor ongoing movements and
communicates with the cortex concerning the
planned upcoming movements.
• Inferior penduncle: through these tracts the
cerebellum receives the sensory information
from the entire body about the position of
body parts, including eyes, the vestibular
system of the inner ear, the joints of the limbs,
the skin tendons and muscles.
• This information provides the cerebellum
knowledge about positions of the body parts
before, during and after a movement.
• Overall, this access to sensory information
allows the cerebellum to monitor the timing
and force of movements while they are
performed.
• Middle Peduncle: it is largest of the cerebellar
peduncles. The neural tracts that travel
through the middle peduncle connect the
cortex with the cerebellum.
• These tracts are especially important to the
motor system, because it is through this tracts
that the cerebellum receives preliminary
information from the cortex regarding the
planned movements. These information are
the rough approximations of intended
movements and need to be co-ordinated by
the cerebellum.
• The cerebellum coordinates these planned
movements by integrating the sensory
information it receives from the body. The
intended movements are the smoothed and
refined according to the current conditions of
the body and sent back to the cortex via
thalamus. These processed motor commands are
then sent to the motor areas of the cortex, while
they are transmitted to the appropriate muscles.
• Superior Peduncle: this pathway is the
cerebellum’s main output channel to rest of
the CNS. It is through the neural fibers in the
superior peduncle that the cerebellum sends
its processed motor impulses to the motor
areas of the cortex, thereby completing the
corticocerebellar control circuit.
• The entire corticocerebellar control circuit
therefore starts in the cortex and courses
down into the cerebellum through the middle
peduncle. The fibers of this neural circuit exit
the cerebellum through the superior peducle
and travel back up to the cortex after passing
through the thalamus.
 The Superior peduncle
transmits cerebellar
commands to the cortex
and the EPS

THE middle peduncle transmits

planned movements from the The cerebellum
association cortex to the
cerebellum

The inferior peduncle

transmits sensory information
from the entire body to the
cerebellum
 BRAINSTEM
• The third major part of the brain.
• The brainstem appears as a
series of structures that seem to
be an upward extension of the
spinal cord.
• The brainstem structures are as
follows..
1. Medulla oblongata
2. Pons
3. Mesencephalon (Midbrain)
4. Diencephalon(Thalamus)
Medulla oblongata (MO)

• Caudal part of brainstem and is

between pons and spinal cord
• Older terminology (bulb)
• It is a rounded bulge that is an enlargement of
the upper spinal cord.
• Contains all motor fibres which descend to spinal
cord and all sensory fibres which carry sensory
information from the body to the brain areas
 Medulla Oblongata
• It contains the ascending and the descending
tracts plus the nuclei of several of the nerves
that control phonation, velopharyngeal
closure, swallowing and articulation.
• It is extremely important for the
control of speech production.
• There is a median fissure
(furrow) on the anterior
surface.
• On either side of this fissure are
landmark swelling called
pyramids.
• Another important land marks
are oval elivations called the
olives which are important way
stations on the pathways of the
auditory nervous system..
• Olives are posterior to the
pyramids.
 Cerebellum and brainstem is connected via Cerebellar
peduncles.

Pons
Just above the medulla is the pons, a massive rounded
structure . It is a massive rounded structure that serves in
part as a connection to the hemispheres of the
cerebellum.
The connections to the cerebellum are made by a number
of transverse fibers on the anterior surface of the pons
 Mesencephalon
• Immediately above the pons, also called
midbrain.
• It is the narrowest part of the brainstem.
• The midbrain contains the tectum or roof, one
of the three longitudinal divisions of the
brainstem.
• On tectum- four swellings called colliculi. i.e.
Two inferior colliculi and two superiror colliculi.
• Inferior colliculi serves as a way stations in the
central auditory nervous system.
• Superior colliculi- way to visual nervous system.
• Base of the brainstem contains cortocobulbar
tract, corticospinal tract, and corticopontine
pathway.
• Base of the brain also contains substantia nigra-
which plays a key role in motor cotrol.
 Diencephalon
• Two structures- thalamus and hypothalamus.
• The thalamus is place ventrally and
hypothalamus is placed dorsally...
• The thalamus is a large, rounded structure
consisting of grey matter.
• Thalamus integrates sensation in the NS.
• Its nuclei act as thalamic relays, sending sensory
information upward to sensory areas on the
cerebral cortex.
• The hypothalamus forms part of the third
ventricle.
• Hypothalamus controls controls several
emotional behaviours such as rage and
aggression.
• In addition, it aids in regulation of body
temperature, food water intake and sexual
and sleep behaviour.
• The hypothalamus exerts neural control over
the pituitary gland, which release hormones
involved in many bodily functions.