Sensors and Actuators

SENSORS :
In any control system, sensors provide measurements of important variables in a format suitable for
the digital microcontroller.
Similarly, actuators are electrically operated devices that regulate inputs to the plant that directly
control its output
The set of variables sensed for any given engine is specific to the associated engine control
configuration.
Set of variables sensed in engine control includes the following :
Mass air-flow rate (MAF); Exhaust gas oxygen concentration (EGO); Throttle plate angular position;
Crankshaft angular position / RPM; Coolant temperature; Intake air temperature; Manifold absolute
pressure (MAP); Differential exhaust gas pressure; Vehicle speed; Transmission gear selector position.

Typical electronic engine control system

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Air-flow rate sensor

The correct operation of an electronically controlled engine operating with Government-regulated
exhaust emissions requires a measurement of the ‘mass flow rate of air (R m) in to the engine.
This is normally mounted as part of the air cleaner assembly, where it measures air flow in to the
intake manifold.
In operation, the MAF sensor generates a continuous signal that varies nearly linearly with true
mass air-flow Rm .
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Working principle :
The MAF sensor is a variation of a classic air-flow sensor called by “Hot-wire anemometer” used to measure wind velocity for weather forecasting.
In the MAF, the ‘Hot-wire’ (Sensing element) is replaced by a hot-film structure mounted on a substrate. On the air-inlet side is mounted a honeycomb flow straightener that
smoothens the air-flow (causing a laminar air-flow over the film element). At the lower portion of the structure is the signal processing circuitry.
The film element is electrically heated to a constant temperature above that of the inlet air.
The latter air temperature is sensed using a solid-state temperature sensor .
The hot-film element is incorporated in a wheatstone bridge circuit as shown in the figure below. The power supply for the bridge circuit comes from an amplifier.
The wheatstone bridge consists of three fixed resistors ( R 1, R2, and R3) and a hot-film element having resistance R HW .
With no air flow, the resistors R 1, R2, and R3 are chosen such that the bridge is balanced.
As air flows across the hot-film, heat is carried away from the film by the moving air.
The amount of heat carried away varies in proportion to the mass flow rate of the air.
The heat lost by the film to the air tends to cause the resistance of the film to vary, which unbalances the bridge circuit, thereby producing an input voltage to the amplifier.

The output of the amplifier is connected to the bridge circuit and provides the power for this circuit.
The amplified voltage changes the resistance in such a way as to maintain a fixed hot-film temperature relative to the inlet temperature.
Manifold absolute Pressure Sensor (MAP)
It is interesting to note that, none of the MAP sensors in use measures manifold pressure directly, but instead measures the displacement of a diaphragm that is deflected by
manifold pressure.
Strain-Gauge MAP sensor : One relatively inexpensive MAP sensor configuration is the “ Silicon-diaphragm diffused strain-gauge sensor shown in the figure below.

This sensor uses a silicon chip forms a diaphragm.

The edge of the chip is sealed to a pyrex plate under vacuum, thereby forming a vacuum chamber
between the plate and the center area of the silicon chip.
A set of sensing resistors (strain gauges) is formed around the edge of this chamber as shown in the figure. The resistors are formed by diffusing a doping impurity in to the silicon.
External connections to these resistors are made through wires connected to the metal bonding pads.
This entire assembly is placed in a sealed housing that is connected to the intake manifold by a small-diameter tube. Manifold pressure applied to the diaphragm causes it to deflect.
The resistance of the sensing resistors changes in proportion to the applied manifold pressure by a phenomenon known as “Piezoresistivity”, which occurs in certain semiconductors so that the actual resistivity (a property of the material) changes in proportion to
the strain. The strain induced in each sensor is proportional to the diaphragm deflection, which in turn is proportional to the pressure (manifold pressure) on the outside surface of the diaphragm.
An electrical signal proportional to the manifold pressure is obtained by connecting the resistors in the Wheatstone Bridge circuit, as shown in the figure.
Engine crankshaft angular position sensor :
Besides pressure, the position of shafts, valves, and levers must be sensed for automotive control systems.
Measurements of the angular position or velocity of shafts are common in automotive electronics.
It is preferable to measure these variables without any mechanical contact with the rotating shaft. Such non-contact measurements can be made
using magnetic or optical phenomena as the physical basis.

Crankshaft angular position is an important variable in automotive control systems,

particularly for controlling ignition timing and fuel injection timing.
Magnetic Reluctance Position Sensor : One engine sensor configuration that measures
crankshaft position directly ( using magnetic phenomenon) is illustrated in the figure below:
magnetic circuit.

This sensor consists of a permanent magnet with a coil of wire wound around it.
A steel disc that is mounted on the crankshaft ( usually in the front of the engine ) has tabs that
pass between the pole pieces of this magnet.
As in the figure, the steel disc has four protruding tabs, which is appropriate for an 8-cylinder
engine.
The passage of each tab can correspond to the TDC position of a cylinder on its power stroke,
although other reference positions are also possible.
This sensor is of the magnetic reluctance type and is based on the concept of a magnetic circuit.
A magnetic circuit is a closed path through a magnetic material .
In the given figure, magnetic circuit is the closed path through the magnetic material and across
the gap between the pole pieces.
Hall-effect Position Sensor :
As already pointed out, the disadvantage of the magnetic reluctance sensor is its lack of output when the engine is not running.
A crankshaft position sensor can overcome this problem by using ‘Hall-effect’ type of sensor. This can be used to measure either camshaft position or crankshaft position.

This is similar to the reluctance sensor in

that it employs a steel disc having
protruding tabs and a magnet for
coupling the disc to the sensing element
Another similarity is that the steel disc
varies the reluctance of the magnetic
path as the tabs pass between the
magnetic pole pieces.
Hall Effect : Hall element is a small, thin, flat slab
of semiconductor material. When a current, I, is
passed through this slab by means of an external
circuit as shown in the figure
below, a voltage is developed across the slab
perpendicular to the directions of both the
current flow and the magnetic flux.
This voltage is proportional to both the current
and magnetic flux density that flows through the
slab. This effect is called “Hall effect”, and the
voltage generated is called “Hall voltage”.
 The voltage waveform produced by the Hall element in the position sensor is illustrated in the
below given figure.
Since the output voltage is proportional to the magnetic flux density, it reaches maximum
when any of the tabs is symmetrically located between the magnet pole pieces (corresponding
to TDC of a cylinder).
If the disc is driven by the camshaft, then the disc must have as many tabs as the engine has
cylinders. Therefore, the disc shown in the figure would be for a 4 – cylinder engine.
It is important to realize that, voltage output versus crankshaft angle is independent of engine
speed. Thus, this sensor can be used for sensing the engine timing when the engine is not
running.
Shielded – field sensor : Figure below shows another concept that uses the hall – effect element in a way different from that discussed above. In this method, the hall element normally exposed to a magnetic field and produces an output voltage. When one of the tabs passes between the magnet and the sensor element, the low reluctance of the tab and disc provides a path for the magnetic flux that bypasses the hall-effect sensor element, and the sensor output drops to near zero. Note that the output waveform in this case is just the
opposite to that of the previous one.
Optical crankshaft Position sensor :
In a sufficiently clean environment a shaft position can also be sensed using optical techniques.

Again, as with the magnetic system, a disc is directly coupled to the crankshaft.
This time, the disc has holes in it that correspond to the number of tabs on the discs of the magnetic systems.
Mounted on the each side of the disc are fiber-optic light pipes. The hole in the disc allows transmission of light through the light pipes from the LED source to the phototransistor used as a light sensor.
Light would not be transmitted from source to sensor when there is no hole because the solid disc blocks the light.
The pulse of light is detected by the phototransistor and coupled to an amplifier to obtain a satisfactory signal level.
The output pulse level can very easily be standard transistor logic levels of +2.4 V for the high level and
+0.8 V for the low level
Throttle Angle Sensor :
Throttle plate angular position is one of the variables to be measured for electronic engine
control.
The throttle plate is linked mechanically to the accelerator pedal. When the driver depresses the
accelerator pedal, this linkage causes the throttle plate angle to increase, allowing more air to
enter the engine and thereby increasing engine power.
Measurement of the instantaneous throttle angle is important for control purposes. Most
throttle angle sensors are of potentiometric type as shown in the figure below.
A section of resistance material is placed in an arc
around the pivot axis for the movable contact.
One end of the resistor is connected to ground,
and the other to a fixed voltage V ( e.g. 5 V).
The voltage at the contact point of the movable
contact is proportional to the angle (a) from the
ground contact to the movable contact.
Thus,
v(a) = ka,
where v(a) is the voltage at the contact point,
k is a constant, and
a is the angle of the contact point from the ground
connection.
This potentiometer can be used to measure any angular rotation.
TEMPERATURE SENSORS-Engine coolant sensor(ECT)
A Typical coolant sensor, consists of a ‘Thermistor’ mounted in a housing that is designed to be
inserted in the coolant system.
This housing is typically threaded with pipe threads that seal the assembly against coolant
leakage.
A thermistor is made up of semiconductor material
whose resistance varies inversely with temperature
( NTC).
The sensor is typically connected in an electrical
circuit as shown below, in which the coolant
temperature sensor resistance is denoted “RT” .
This resistance is connected to a reference voltage
through a fixed resistance R.
The sensor output voltage is given by,
VT = V.RT/(R+RT)
The sensor output voltage varies inversely with
temperature.
Exhaust Gas Oxygen Sensor/ λ Sensor :
It was mentioned earlier that the amount of oxygen in the exhaust gas is used as an indirect measurement of the air/fuel ratio.
As a result, one of the most significant automotive sensors in use today is the Exhaust Gas Oxygen (EGO) Sensor.
This sensor is often called a “Lambda Sensor”, where Lambda ( λ) is the air-to-fuel ratio.
The two types of EGO sensors that have been used are based on the use of active oxides of two types of materials.
One uses Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) and the other uses Titanium dioxide(TiO2). The former is the most commonly used type today.
Desirable EGO characteristics : The EGO sensor characteristics that are desirable for
the type of limit-cycle fuel control system are as follows :
1. Abrupt change in voltage at stoichiometry
2. Rapid switching of output voltage in response to exhaust gas oxygen changes
3. Large difference in sensor output voltage between rich and lean mixture
conditions
4. Stable voltages with respect to exhaust temperature

An ideal EGO sensor would have an abrupt, rapid, and significant change in output
voltage as the mixture passes through stoichiometry.
The output voltage would not change as exhaust gas temperature changes.
Switching characteristics : The switching time for the EGO sensor
also must be considered in control applications. An ideal
characteristic for a limit-cycle controller is shown below (left).
The actual characteristics of a new EGO sensor are shown below
(right-top).
The arrow pointing down indicates the change in Vo as the air/fuel
ratio is varied from rich to lean, and vice-versa. Note that, the
sensor output does not change at exactly the same point for
increasing / decreasing air/fuel ratios. This phenomenon is called
“Hysteresis”.
Hysteresis is the difference in the switching point of the output
voltage with respect to stoichiometry as a mixture passes from
lean to rich, as contrasted to a mixture that passes from rich to lean.
Temperature affects switching times and output voltage.
Switching times at two temperatures are shown in the
figure (right – bottom).
The temperature dependence of the EGO sensor output
voltage is very important.
The graph in the below given figure shows the temperature
dependence of an EGO sensor output voltage for lean and
rich mixtures and for two different load resistances.
Knock Sensors
this sensor is employed in closed-loop ignition timing to prevent undesirable knock
Some engine knock sensors use rods within a magnetic field to detect the presence of knock.
Other use vibration sensitive crystals or semiconductors.
it can be described generally as a rapid rise in cylinder pressure during combustion. It does not
occur normally, but only under special conditions.
It occurs most commonly with high manifold pressure and excessive spark advance.
It is important to detect knock and avoid excessive knock; otherwise, there may be damage to
the engine.
One way of controlling knocking is to sense when knocking begins and then retard the ignition
until the knocking stops. A key to the control loop for this method is a knock sensor.
Magnetostriction is a phenomenon whereby the magnetic properties of a material depend on
stress (due to an applied force).
When sensing knock, the magnetostrictive rods, which are in a magnetic field, change the flux
field in the coil due to knock-induced forces. This change in flux produces a voltage change in the
coil. This voltage is used to sense excessive knock
 Actuator
an actuator is a device that receives an electrical
input (e.g., from the engine controller) and
produces a mechanical or thermal (or other)
output.
Examples of actuators include: various types of
electric motors, solenoids, and piezoelectric force
generators.
In automotive electronic systems the solenoid is the
most commonly used device because it is relatively
simple and inexpensive.
The solenoid is used in applications ranging from
precise fuel control applications such as electric
door locks.
The solenoid consists of a fixed steel (i.e.,
ferromagnetic) frame with a movable steel element. A spring holds the movable element in
position such that there is a gap between the end of the movable element and the opening in
the frame. A coil is wound around the steel frame, forming a powerful electromagnet.
When a current passes through the coil, a magnetic field is created that tends to pull the
movable element toward the steel frame. When the magnetic field, which is proportional to the
current, is sufficient to overcome the force at the spring holding the movable element, then it
begins to move toward the frame. As this element moves, the size of the gap is reduced, causing
an increase in the strength of the magnetic field. This increase causes the movable element
to accelerate toward the frame until it reaches the stop.
Fuel Injection
A fuel injector is (in essence) a solenoid-operated valve.
The valve opens or closes to permit or block fuel flow to the engine.
The valve is attached to the movable element of the solenoid and is switched by the solenoid
activation.
In a fuel injector with no current flowing, the solenoid movable element is held down against
the stop, covering the aperture or nozzle.
Fuel is thereby blocked from flowing from the pressurized fuel chamber into the aperture.
When current flows through the solenoid coil, the movable element is switched upward, the
aperture is exposed, and fuel (under pressure) sprays through this aperture.
The fuel flow rate through the nozzle is constant for a given regulated fuel pressure and nozzle
geometry; therefore, the quantity of fuel injected into the air stream is proportional to the time
the valve is open. The control current that operates the fuel injector is pulsed on and off to
deliver precise quantities of fuel.
Exhaust Gas Recirculation Actuator
This actuator is a vacuum-operated diaphragm valve with a spring that holds the valve closed if
no vacuum is applied.
The vacuum that operates the diaphragm is supplied by the intake manifold and is controlled by
a solenoid-operated valve. This solenoid valve is controlled by the output of the control system.
One kind of EGR actuator consists of a vacuum operated valve with the vacuum supply
controlled by a solenoid.
When the EGR valve is open, exhaust gas flows into the intake manifold.
The amount of valve opening is determined by the average pressure on the vacuum side of the
diaphragm.
The primary circuit of the coil is connected to the battery and through a power transistor
to ground.
For convenience, the collector, emitter, and base are denoted c, e, and b respectively The coil
secondary S is connected to one or more spark plugs.
The electronic controller supplies base current to the power transistor, rendering it fully
conductive (i.e., in saturation).
When it is conducting, the transistor acts essentially like a closed switch.
A relatively large current (denoted Ip) flows through the primary windings of the coil (P), creating
a relatively large magnetic field that is linked to the secondary coil.
At the appropriate time for ignition the controller switches off the base current, causing the
transistor to be nonconducting.
At this instant the primary current drops to zero very quickly, causing the magnetic field strength
to drop rapidly also