Models of second

language learning
and the concept of
proficiency
By : Aaradhya Singh
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Models of second language learning
• Definition – The model provides a framework or a map of essential factors
that are taken in account in interpretating second language learning.

• There are 5 variables of language learning :

• Social context - These includes sociolinguistics, Socioeconomic factors etc.
• Learners characteristics - Age, Cognitive Characteristics, Affective
Characteristics and personality characteristics.
• Learning conditions - Teaching of second language and education treatment
+ exposure towards targeted language.
• Learning process- Strategies, techniques and mental operation.
• Learning outcomes- Second language competence and proficiency. Also about
the success that can be achieved in the area of language. 02
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Introduction:
• There have been differences among practitioners, theorists and
researchers is arises from how significantly these factors are
attributing in language learning
• The primary difficulty is to identify these factors and trace their
influence on language learning.
• The element used such as proficiency, motivation, aptitude and
language learning context are not very clearly described.
• The learning process of an individual is hard to find (elusive)
and the various factors contributing like aptitude and
motivation, the social context and the effects of teaching is
hard to isolate.

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Learner Characteristics:
• Learner characteristics strictly depends upon priori or previous
knowledge from the learning style of a learner.
• Many factors affecting learners have been examined
thoroughly and with the current scenario none of them can be
considered insignificant in the context of language acquisition.
• Ex- Age and sex, cognitive variable like general language
ability, language aptitude, previous language learning
experience.

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Learning Process
• Learning process is about techniques, strategies and methods
used by an individual learners for conscious and unconscious
mental operations.
• Learning process is how best to study this methodologies.

• Some Approaches that can be used by researchers are:

• Approach-1: to examine the actual language learning behavior
and asking the Question “what do learners actually do to learn
a language in a classroom or in a free language learning
situation?”
• Approach-2: enacting like learner and inquire for objectives,
strategies, techniques, thought and feelings towards language
learning as well as steps and stages used by learner to master 06
the language.
• Approach-3: An option of experimental, observational or
introspective process involved in language learning. Few
examples of the process are attending, discriminating,
imitating, rehearsing, probing, matching etc.
• Any of these approaches can be repeated over a period of time
to get long time result of language learning development.
• This would also be helpful in comparing different styles on
individual or a group.

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Learning Conditions
• Learning Conditions are difference faced by different learner in
order to acquire second language and exposure experienced
by learner as a contributing factor.
• There are 2 types of learning conditions:
• To learn the target language in a supportive environment
where the language is used consistently.
For Example: Native Hindi speaker shifting to France.
• To learn the target language in a non supportive environment
like in a foreign language class.
For Example: Student studying French in a classroom.

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• In a supportive setting the learner would be able to acquire
language in a more natural form. Whilst in a non supportive
environment the learner would learn the language in a more
strict manner.
• These difference in conditions of learning led to the distinction
between the guided and unguided learning which is an
important part in the study of learning process.

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 Social Context
• Social context plays an important role in the learning
conditions and learners characteristics.
• Social context in second language acquisition includes
sociolinguistics, sociological knowledge, social relations etc.
which shows the learner attitude and motivation towards the
learning goal.

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Learning Outcomes
• The ultimate objective of a language teaching is effective
language learning then the concern shifts to language
outcomes.
• Learning outcomes measures the success rate in career in the
language learnt by the learner.
• Guaranteed success in the career is not compulsory result in
language learning.
• Failure in the process towards a successful career can give a
sense of alienation and resentment towards the second
language and language learning.

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Proficiency
• Introduction

• Proficiency is a learning outcome. Commonly viewed as an

achievement. Proficiency in consequently defined as the
specific goals or standards. These goals severs as a benchmark
to evaluate proficiency as a measurable reality, which affects
the performance of individual learners or groups. Once
established proficiency connects to the other elements of the
model such as context, traits, learning conditions and learning
process.
• Therefore understanding the concept and articulation of
proficiency plays an important role in examining the process of 12
second language learning.
Native like proficiency
• Various learners at different stages of language acquisition
exhibit proficiency, ranging from zero to achieving native like
fluency.
• While absolute zero proficiency in rare, learners usually
possess knowledge at least one language (their first language).
• While attaining complete competence in a second language in
rare many experts agree that striving for absolute mastery
may not be practical or even admissible. The aspiration of
native like proficiency remains an ideal goals.
• Native speaker’s language skills serve as a benchmark for the
second language proficiency concept is language teaching.

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Linguistic and Communicative
competence
• The concept of linguistic competence as introduced by
Chomsky and later expanded upon by sociolinguists like
Hymes.
• Chomsky defines competence as the inherent, unspoken
knowledge that underlies actual language performance.
However, linguistic competence, criticized for its exclusive
focus on formal linguistic elements, is broadened by discourse
analysis and sociolinguistics.
• These fields emphasize the importance of pragmatic and
sociocultural dimensions, arguing that native speakers possess
not only linguistic competence but also sociolinguistic
communicative competence.
• This expanded view recognizes that effective communication 14
involves more than just formal language rules; it requires an
understanding of social and cultural contexts.
‘Dual-Iceberg’ representation of
bilingual proficiency
• The "dual-iceberg" metaphor is a representation of bilingual
proficiency.
• It's based on the idea that every language has surface
features, but there are also proficiencies that are common
across languages.
• The metaphor depicts two languages as two icebergs that
overlap and share a common underlying proficiency.
• The first language and second language are the two tips of the
iceberg that are visible above the surface.
• The "dual-iceberg" metaphor is based on Cummins'
Interdependence Hypothesis. Cummins also developed the
idea of a Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP). He suggested
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that cognitive and literacy skills developed in a person's first
language will transfer across languages.
‘Dual-Iceberg’ representation of bilingual
proficiency
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CALP & BICS
• BICS and CALP are categories of linguistic proficiency. BICS
stands for Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills. CALP
stands for Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency.

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 BICS

• BICS is the language used in everyday interactions.

• It includes conversational fluency, such as the ability to talk
about objects or experiences in familiar contexts.
• BICS is also the building blocks of language acquisition.
• It includes simple grammar and common words like "book",
"pencil", "marker", "cup", and "plate".

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CALP
• CALP is the language used in academic situations. It includes
the ability to understand and express concepts and ideas in
both oral and written modes. CALP requires an understanding
of complex concepts and the ability to express oneself
eloquently.

• Jim Cummins proposed the BICS and CALP theory in 1979. BICS
is generally acquired sooner than CALP. Most theorists agree
that it takes at least 5–7 years to develop CALP sufficiently to
participate in all English academic classes.

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Summary
• In a review, knowing a language, competence, or proficiency in
the first or second language can be summarized as:
• The innate mastery of the forms of the language.
• The intuitive mastery of the linguistic, cognitive, affective and
sociocultural meanings expressed by the language forms.
• The capacity to use the language with maximum attention to
communication and minimum attention to form.
• The creativity of language use.

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