Introduction to Lifespan

Development
PSYC221 Developmental Psychology
–I

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 Developmental Psychology,
(Human Development or Lifespan Development)

is the scientific study of ways in which people

What is change, as well as stay the same, from
Developmental conception to death.

Psychology? The field examines change across a broad range

of topics including physical and other
psychophysiological processes, cognition,
language, and psychosocial development, as well
as the impact of family and peers.

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 Human development: Applied, scientific, and multidisciplinary

The field informs several applied fields It also complements several other
in psychology, including, basic research fields in psychology
 educational psychology, including,
 psychopathology,  social psychology,

 forensic developmental psychology  cognitive psychology,

 comparative psychology

It draws from the theories and research of several scientific fields including:
biology, sociology, health care, nutrition, anthropology

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 Paul Baltes' principles of the lifespan perspective offer a
comprehensive framework for understanding human
development. Here’s a summary of each principle:

Paul Baltes'
principles of 1.Development is Lifelong: Development doesn’t stop

the lifespan at a specific age; it continues throughout the entire

perspective lifespan. Each stage of life contributes to overall

development, and no single period is more crucial or
defining than another. This concept implies that growth
and change are ongoing processes.

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 2.Development is Multidirectional: Development
Paul Baltes' involves both gains and losses. As people grow and age,
principles of they may make progress in some areas while experiencing
the lifespan declines in others. For instance, learning new skills might
perspective come with challenges or the loss of other abilities, like
memory changes with age.

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 3. Development is Multidimensional: Human development
encompasses three main domains:

• Physical: Changes in body structure, sensory capabilities, and

Paul Baltes' health.

principles of • Cognitive: Changes in mental processes like intelligence,

the lifespan memory, and problem-solving.

perspective • Psychosocial: Changes in emotions, self-concept, and social

relationships. These domains interact with and influence each

other, highlighting the interconnectedness of development.

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 4. Development is Multidisciplinary: Understanding
Paul Baltes' development requires insights from various academic
principles of disciplines such as psychology, sociology, biology, and
the lifespan more. Each discipline contributes a unique perspective on
perspective how development occurs.

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 5. Development is Characterized by Plasticity:
Paul Baltes' Plasticity refers to the capacity for change and adaptation
principles of throughout life. This principle underscores the potential
the lifespan for personal growth and recovery from challenges, such
perspective as brain plasticity allowing learning and recovery from
injury.

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 6. Development is Multicontextual: Development happens within
multiple contexts, including historical, cultural, and socioeconomic
environments. Baltes identified three specific contextual influences:

Paul Baltes'  Normative age-graded influences: An age-grade is a specific age group, such as

toddler, adolescent, or senior. Humans in a specific age-grade share particular

principles experiences and developmental changes.

of the  Normative history-graded influences: The time period in which you are born shapes

lifespan your experiences. A group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a

perspective
particular society travel through life often experiencing similar circumstances.

 Non-normative life influences: Despite sharing an age and history with peers, each of

us also has unique experiences that may shape our development. A child who loses
his/her parent at a young age has experienced a life event that is not typical of the age
group.

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These principles together provide a holistic view of
human development, emphasizing its complexity and the
interplay between various factors throughout life.

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 Conceptions of Age
1.Chronological Age: The number of years since birth.
2.Biological Age: How quickly the body is aging, influenced by
factors like nutrition, physical activity, sleep, stress management,
and genetics.
3.Psychological Age: An individual's cognitive and emotional
capacity compared to others of the same chronological age. It
reflects one's mental and emotional state rather than just years
lived.
4.Social Age: Based on cultural norms and expectations for people
at different ages. This concept is becoming less relevant as societal
expectations shift.

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 Periods of Development
1.Prenatal Development: From conception to birth, focusing on the health of the mother and
factors that can affect the fetus.
2.Infancy and Toddlerhood: The first two years, marked by rapid physical and cognitive
development.
3.Early Childhood: From ages two to six, characterized by language learning, self-awareness,
and independence.
4.Middle and Late Childhood: From six years old to puberty, involving school experiences
and comparisons with peers.
5.Adolescence: A period of physical growth, sexual maturation, and cognitive changes, with a
sense of invincibility that may lead to risky behaviors.
6.Emerging Adulthood: Ages 18 to 29, focusing on identity exploration and preparation for
full independence.
7.Established Adulthood: Ages 30 to 45, involving intimate relationships, family, and career
development.

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 Issues in Lifespan Development
Nature vs. Nurture
 The "nature vs. nurture" debate explores whether genetics (heredity) or
environmental factors (such as lifestyle and diet) are more influential in shaping
traits like height, weight, and personality. Most scholars agree that both heredity
and environment interact in complex ways to affect development.

 Although each individual inherits a specific pattern of genes from his or her parents,
the expression of those genes is influenced by the environment in which the individual
grows.
 It no longer is a case of nature versus nurture because researchers understand that
both play a role in influencing the changes throughout life.
 Furthermore, specific environmental factors can influence the expression of genes.

Example—Maternal stress may alter the genetic material of her fetus. Similarly, in later
adulthood, an individual may have a genetic risk for developing Alzheimer’s but not be
afflicted by the disorder if he or she is intellectually or physically active.

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 Issues in Lifespan Development
Continuity vs. Discontinuity

 This debate concerns whether development is a smooth, gradual

process or consists of distinct stages. Stage theories (e.g., Freud,
Erikson, Piaget) argue that development occurs in specific,
qualitatively different stages. In contrast, continuous development
theories (e.g., behaviorists, Vygotsky) suggest that development is
gradual and builds on existing skills.

 We speak of stages from infancy through old age, but in reality, people develop
in continuous fashion throughout life. Even periods marked by specific
biological changes, such as puberty and the climacteric (menopause in
women), occur in gradual fashion.

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 Issues in Lifespan Development
Stability vs. Change

 This question examines whether personality traits remain consistent over

time or change due to social and cultural influences. Some theories suggest
early traits persist throughout life, while others argue that development is
shaped by ongoing social and cultural experiences.
 Personality researchers in particular have attempted to determine whether there are
dispositions that remain consistent over life.
Example—Is the difficult and colicky child destined to become a neurotic, anxious, and
worrying adult?
 Although a flurry of studies on this topic preoccupied personality researchers throughout the
1980s and 1990s, the field seems to have arrived at somewhat of a consensus on
personality dispositions as influences on life choices, which, in turn, further influence
personality (nature and nurture once again).
 Moreover, even researchers who at one time believed, along with William James, that
personality was fixed by the age of 30, now acknowledge that changes in traits can continue
to occur throughout old age.

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 Issues in Lifespan Development
Active vs. Passive Development
 This issue revolves around how much influence individuals have over

their own development. Some theorists, like Piaget, believe people

actively shape their own development through exploration and learning.
Others, like behaviorists, view individuals as more passive, shaped
largely by external stimuli and reinforcement.

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 Issues in Lifespan Development
Critical periods

In early development in particular, certain factors must be present at

specific ages for growth to occur normally.

 Critical periods can involve biological changes, such as the growth of the nervous
system, which may be affected negatively by maternal illness early in pregnancy.
 Critical periods can also involve the development of sensory abilities, such as
depth perception in early infancy.
Example—Early infancy, during which the attachment bond is developed, is an
example of a critical period in social/personality growth.

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 Issues in Lifespan Development
Critical periods

In general, as individuals grow older, the relevance of critical periods weakens

considerably. At later ages, there is evidence instead for considerable plasticity. People
may suffer injuries or illnesses which they compensate for by recruiting other abilities
Example—Older adults who have cerebral hemorrhage and lose language abilities can
regain almost all, if not their entire, verbal facilities.

 Critical periods are also referred to as sensitive periods since the term critical period
implies that something has to happen in a specific time period to develop normally
(e.g., imprinting in ducks and geese).

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 Theories of Human Development
• Need for theories
– Organised, meaningful frameworks for observation
– If supported by research, sound basis for practice PLUS this is essential for
the survival of the theory!

• Theories are bound by culture and time

• No single theory explains everything

– Humans are complex: emotional, cognitive, physiological, etc. Changes are
hard to cover in one.

• Integration of different theories: better understanding

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 Theories of Human Development

Theories: three basic issues

– Continuity vs. discontinuity of human development?
– One vs. many courses of development?
– Genetic vs. environmental factors (nature vs. nurture debate)

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 Historical Theories on Development
1.Preformationism: This outdated view held that children were miniature adults with all
their characteristics predetermined at conception. It ignored the role of the environment
in development.
2.John Locke (1632-1704): Locke argued that children are shaped primarily by their
environment and experiences. He saw the mind as a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) and
emphasized the importance of education and socialization.
3.Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Rousseau believed in a natural, unfolding
development process guided by an internal timetable. He emphasized that children
should explore and learn according to their own developmental stages.
4.Arnold Gesell (1880-1961): Gesell focused on maturation, the idea that development
follows a fixed sequence dictated by genetics. He believed in allowing children to
develop skills at their own pace.
5.Sigmund Freud (1856-1939): Freud introduced the psychodynamic perspective,
emphasizing early childhood experiences and their impact on personality development.
His theory of psychosexual development was influential but criticized for being difficult
to test scientifically.
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 Contemporary Theories on Development
 Erik Erikson (1902-1994): Erikson proposed eight psychosocial stages spanning the lifespan. Each stage
involves a crisis that must be resolved for healthy development. His theory emphasizes social relationships
over sexuality and highlights the role of crises in development.
 Learning Theory/Behaviorism: Focused on observable behavior rather than internal thoughts. B.F. Skinner
expanded behaviorism with principles of reinforcement and conditioning. This perspective highlights the role
of prior experiences in shaping behavior.
 Social Learning Theory: Developed by Albert Bandura, this theory emphasizes learning through
observation and imitation. Bandura introduced the concept of reciprocal determinism, where individuals
influence and are influenced by their environment.
 Jean Piaget (1896-1980): Piaget's theory outlines four stages of cognitive development, each marked by
distinct ways of thinking. His work has been criticized for overemphasizing maturation and underestimating
cultural influences.
 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934): Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and social interaction in cognitive
development. He introduced the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development, where learning is guided by
more knowledgeable others.
 Information Processing: This approach views cognitive development as a gradual improvement in
processing skills, building on existing abilities and enhanced by brain maturation and environmental
interactions.
 Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005): Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory explores the multiple
layers of environmental influences on development, including microsystems, mesosystems, exosystems,
macrosystems, and the chronosystem. This comprehensive model highlights the interplay between various
environmental factors but is complex to apply in research.
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 So what?
 Each theory has its own strengths and weaknesses
 Each can explain one/two aspects of developmental era, not the
whole

 There are many pathways needs to be discovered or understood better,

therefore, an eclectic approach, combination of traditional viewpoints with
the contemporary approaches would bring better answers to our questions
in developmental science.

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