Chapter Eight

Power and Politics in Organization

8.1 DEFINITIONS OF POWER

Power is defined as: a capacity that one person has to influence the
behavior of another so that the other acts in accordance with the first
person's wishes.
 Two Facets of Power. When it comes to power:

 Potential. Power’s potential need not be actualized to be

effective. It may exist even if not used.
 Dependency. Power requires a dependency relationship: the
greater the dependency, the greater the power that exists.
Dependence is based on alternatives and desirability
 8.2 CONTRASTING LEADERSHIP AND POWER
Similarities. The concepts of leadership and power are closely
intertwined. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group
goals.
Differences. Power and leadership differ in three major areas:
1. Goal Compatibility. Power does not require goal compatibility,
merely dependence. Leadership requires some congruence
between the goals of the leader and those being led.
2. Direction of Influence. Leadership focuses on the downward
influence over one's followers. It minimizes the importance of
lateral and upward influence patterns. Power is concerned with
all directions of influence.
3. Research Emphasis. Leadership research tends to emphasize
the style leaders take. Research on power is a broader topic
and focuses on tactics for gaining compliance. Power research
looks at the power exerted by individuals, as well as that used
by groups
 8.3 BASES OF POWER/TYPES OF POWER
Groupings. There are two general groupings of power sources:
formal and personal.
Formal Power. This source of power comes from an individual's
position in an organization. It is based on the ability to coerce or
reward, or from formal authority. Basic source of powers are
1. Coercive Power. This power base is driven by fear. A target
reacts to this power out of fear of the negative results that would
occur if one fails to comply.
2. Reward Power. The opposite of coercive power, this source of
power is based on producing positive benefits for the target who
complies. Rewards can be financial or nonfinancial
(recognition, interesting assignments, or preferred work shifts).
3. Legitimate Power. In formal groups and organizations, this
common base of power is the formal authority to control and use
organizational resources based on structural position
Personal Power. This power stems from an individual's unique
characteristics. There are two bases of personal power:
4.Expert Power. This is influence wielded as a result of expertise,
special skill, or knowledge.
 This has become a powerful source of influence as the world
becomes more technologically oriented.
5. Referent Power. This power is based on identification with a
person who has desirable resources or personal traits.
 It develops out of admiration of another and the desire to be like
that person: followers wish to please a person with referent
power. This source of power is closely aligned with charisma.
Eg Singer Hacalu Hundesa and Tewdros Kasahun have referent
power in Ethiopian music industry.
Which Bases of Power Are Most Effective?( Class discussion)
1. Personal Power. Both expert and referent power are positively
related to employee satisfaction with supervision, organizational
commitment, and performance.
2. Formal Power. Reward and legitimate power are unrelated to
organizational outcomes. Coercive power is negatively related to
employee satisfaction and commitment.
8.4 POWER TACTICS
 Defined. Unlike bases of power, which are relatively fixed (at
least in the short run), power tactics are methods any one could use
in any situation to influence others.
 Power tactics are not necessarily linked with any given basis of
power.
Nine Influence Tactics of power:
1. Legitimacy. Relying on one's positional authority or stressing the request is in
accordance with organizational policies and rules.
2. Rational Persuasion. Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to
demonstrate the request is reasonable.
3. Inspirational Appeals. Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a
target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations.
4. .Consultation. Increasing the target’s motivation and support by involving
him or her in deciding how the plan or change will be done.
5. Exchange. Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for
following a request.
6. Personal Appeals. Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty.
7. Ingratiation. Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making the
request.
8. Pressure. Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats.
9. Coalitions. Enlisting the aid of other people to persuade the target or using
the support of others as a reason for the target to agree .
Tactic Effectiveness. Not all tactics are equally effective.
1. Effective Tactics. Rational persuasion, inspirational appeals,
and consultation tend to be the most effective tactics.
Typically, these “softer” tactics are more effective than
“harder” tactics (exchange, coalitions, and pressure).
2. Ineffective Tactics. Pressure is the least effective of all nine
tactics.
3. Combining Tactics. Effectiveness is increased by using more
than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, so
long as the tactics are compatible.
4. The Impact of Influence Direction. Tactic effectiveness is
modified by the direction of the influence.
A. Downward. Inspirational appeals and pressure work best as downward
influencing tactics.
B. Lateral. Personal appeals and coalitions are most effective as lateral
influence attempts.
C. Upward. The only tactic that is effective across all organizational levels
is rational persuasion
8.5 POWER IN GROUPS: COALITIONS
 Coalition: defined as an informal group bound together by the
active pursuit of a single issue. Successful coalitions have been
found to contain fluid membership and are able to form swiftly,
achieve their target issue, and quickly disappear. Coalitions are
often formed when personal power is lacking.
 Predictions Regarding Coalition. There are number of
predictions that can be made about the creation of coalitions.
a. Size. Coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their
size
b. Degree of Interdependence. More coalitions are likely to be
created when there is a great deal of task and resource
interdependence.
c. Routineness of Task. The more routine the group’s tasks are, the
greater the likelihood that coalitions will form .Because tasks are
routine, workers are easily substituted for one another and thus
the greater their dependence upon the organization
8.6 POLITICS: POWER IN ACTION
Definition: Politics occurs when employees convert their power
into action. Employees with good political skills have the ability to
use their bases of power effectively.
Political Behavior. Defined as activities that are not required as
part of one's formal role in the organization, but that influence, or
attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization. This definition includes
three key points:
a) Outside of Job. Political behavior is outside one’s specified job
requirements.
b) Use of Power. The behavior requires some attempt to use one's
power bases.
c) Effects on Decision-Making. Encompasses efforts to influence
the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision-making.
Factors Contributing to Political Behavior. There are a number of
factors that appear to encourage political behavior: some are individual
characteristics and others are the results of the organization's culture or
internal environment.
Individual Factors.
 Traits. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal
locus of control, and have a high need for power are more likely to
engage in political behavior.
 Situational Factors. There are three situational factors that influence
the degree to which a person will pursue illegitimate political
actions.
 The greater an individual's investment is in the organization, the
lower the likelihood that person will engage in illegitimate political
actions.
 The greater the number of perceived alternatives (e.g., other job
offers), the greater the likelihood of illegitimate actions occurring.
 The greater the individual's expectations of success for the
illegitimate action, the more likely the illegitimate action will be
 Organizational Factors. This is the most influential set of
factors leading to political behavior.
 Organizational Resources. When an organization’s resources
are declining or when the existing patterns of resource
distribution are changing, the likelihood of political behavior
increases. This is especially true in periods of downsizing.
 Promotions. The availability of promotions is one of the most
political aspects of any organization and is most likely to cause
political behavior.
 Organizational Culture. Cultures evidencing the following
characteristics are more likely to experience political behaviors.
8.7 Impression Management (IM)
 Defined as the process by which individuals attempt to control the
impersonation others form of them.
 High self-monitors tend to be those most concerned with IM.
 They are good at reading situations and molding their appearances
and behavior to fit each situation.
 The Seven Impression Management (IM) Techniques are:
1) Conformity: agreeing with someone else's opinion in order to gain
his or her approval.
2) Excuses: explanations of our predicament-creating event aimed at
minimizing the apparent severity of the predicament.
3) Apologies: admitting responsibility for an undesirable event and
simultaneously seeking to get a pardon for the action.
4) Self-Promotion: highlighting one's best qualities, downplaying
one's deficits, and calling attention to one's achievements
5. Flattery: complementing others on their virtues in an effort to
make one appear perceptive and likable.
6.Favors: doing something nice for someone to gain that person's
approval.
7.Association: enhancing or protecting one's image by managing
information about people and things with which one is associated.
Misrepresentation. While IM does not necessarily imply
misrepresentation of a person, it is a possibility.
• Those who misrepresent themselves may be discredited when
perceived as insincere or manipulative.
• Situations characterized by high uncertainty or ambiguity
increase the likelihood of intentional misrepresentation.
Ethical Guidelines for Political Behavior
 While there are no clear-cut standards to differentiate ethical
from unethical politicking, answering the following questions
may prove helpful.
 Realize however that the answers to these questions are often
argued in ways to make unethical practices seem ethical.
 This is especially true for powerful people who are ego-driven.
 What is the utility of engaging in the behavior?
 How does the utility of engaging in the political behavior balance
out any harm (or potential harm) it will do to others?
 Does the political activity conform to the standards of equity and
justice?
IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS
 In order to accomplish things in a group or organization, it helps to
have power.
 Power can be increased through the following techniques:
 Increasing the dependence of other people on the person desiring
power.
 Gaining unique knowledge or skills that are necessary in the
organization.
 Person desiring power should seek to minimize his or her
dependence on others.
 Acquire useful bases of power (expert and referent).
 Use effective power tactics (consultation and inspirational appeal).
 Avoid using coercion and other tactics that may result in resistance
and resentment in others.
 Accept the political nature of organizations and understand it in
order to formulate advantageous political strategies.
END OF CHAPTER
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