Computer

Fundamentals and
Programming in C
2nd Edition
Reema Thareja

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 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

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 COMPUTER
• A computer is a machine that takes instructions and performs computations
based on those instructions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTERS
• Speed : Computers can process data and perform complex calculations at incredible speeds,
far surpassing human capabilities. Operations that would take hours or even days for a
human to complete can be done in milliseconds or less by a computer.
• Accuracy: Computers are highly precise in their operations. Once programmed correctly,
they perform tasks without errors unless there are flaws in the instructions provided
(software bugs or hardware issues).
• Automatic: Computers can perform tasks automatically without human intervention once
programmed. They follow instructions step by step and can execute repetitive tasks with
ease.
• Diligence: Unlike humans, computers do not get tired or bored. They can perform
repetitive operations without degradation in performance, making them ideal for tasks that
require continuous or repetitive work.

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 COMPUTER
• Memory: Computers have the ability to store large amounts of data for quick retrieval. They
can remember instructions, user data, and past operations for future use, ensuring smooth
operations across sessions.
• No I.Q: Computers do not possess intelligence or the ability to think. They rely entirely on
the instructions provided to them (via software or programming) and cannot make decisions
on their own. They follow a predetermined set of rules.
• Economical: With advancements in technology, computers have become cost-effective for
individuals and businesses. They save time, reduce the need for labor, and improve
productivity, making them a financially viable solution for various applications.
• Versatile: Computers can perform a wide variety of tasks, from simple calculations to
complex simulations, making them suitable for use across multiple industries such as
education, healthcare, finance, engineering, and more.

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 STORED PROGRAM CONCEPT
All digital computers are based on the principle of stored program concept, which
was introduced by Sir John von Neumann in the late 1940s. A stored program
architecture is a fundamental computer architecture wherein the computer
executes the instructions that are stored in its memory.

Key characteristic features :

•Before any data is processed, instructions are read into memory.
•Instructions are stored in the computer’s memory for execution.
•Instructions are stored in binary form (using binary numbers—only 0s and 1s).
•Processing starts with the first instruction in the program, which is copied into a control unit
circuit. The control unit executes the instructions.
•Instructions written by the users are performed sequentially until there is a break in the current
flow.
•Input / Output and processing operations are performed simultaneously. While data is being
read/written, the central processing unit (CPU) executes another program in the memory that is
ready for execution.
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 GENERATION OF COMPUTERS
The word generation means the state of improvement in the product
development process. Similarly, computer generation refers to the different
advancements of new computer technology.

First Generation (1942-1955) - Vacuum Tubes

The first generation computers used very large number of vacuum tubes for
circuitry and magnetic drums for memory.

UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are prime examples of first-generation computing

devices.

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Advantages: Fastest calculating device of their time
Disadvantages:
1. Dissipate a lot of heat
2. Consume a lot of electricity
3. Very bulky in size
4. Frequently down due to hardware failures.
5. Needed constant maintenance because of low mean time between failures
6. Limited commercial use because these computers were difficult to program
7. Very expensive

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Second Generation (1955-1964) Transistors

•The second generation computers were manufactured using transistors.

•While first generation computers were programmed using machine language,
second generation computers moved towards symbolic, or assembly languages,
which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words.
•At this time, high-level programming languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, ALGOL
and SNOBOL were also being developed.
•Second generation computers were first to store instructions in memory,
which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
•Second generation computers were first developed for the atomic energy
industry.

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Advantages:
1. Consumed less electricity and thus dissipated less heat as compared to first
generation computers
2. Faster, cheaper smaller and more reliable than first generation computers
3. Could be programmed using assembly language and high level languages
4. Had faster primary memory(Temporary data storage) and a larger secondary
memory(Permanent data storage)

Disadvantages:
1. Second generation computers were manufactured using transistors that had to
be assembled manually. This made commercial production of computers difficult
and expensive.

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Third Generation (1964-1975) Integrated Circuits

• The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third
generation of computers.
• These computers had few megabytes of main memory and magnetic disks which
could store few tens of megabytes of data per disk drive.
• High level programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN were standardized
by ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Some more high level programming languages like PL/I PASCAL and BASIC were
introduced at this time.
• Third generation computers were the first to implement time sharing operating
systems.
• Input to these computers could now be provided using keyboards and mouse.

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Advantages:
1.Faster than second generation computers and could perform 1 million transactions per
second.
2. Smaller, cheaper and more reliable than their predecessors
3. These computers had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage
4. Widely used for scientific as well as business applications
5. During this generation of computers, standardization of existing high level
languages and invention of new high level languages was done
6.Had time sharing operating system which allowed interactive use of computer by one or
more users simultaneously thereby improving the productivity of the users.
Drawbacks:
Despite being faster, smaller, cheaper, and more reliable, third-generation
computers had limited memory capacity, generated significant heat, required
specialized maintenance, and faced inadequate networking capabilities.

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Fourth Generation (1975-1989) Microprocessors
•The microprocessor started the fourth generation of computers with thousands of
integrated circuits built onto a single silicon chip.
• Semi-conductor memories were used which were very fast, even the hard disks
became cheaper, smaller in size and larger in capacity.
• For input, floppy disks (in addition to magnetic tapes) were used to port data and
programs from one computer to another.
• During this period many new operating systems were developed like MS-DOS MS-
Windows UNIX and Apple’s proprietary operating system.
•Development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.
•In this period, several word processing packages, spreadsheet packages and graphics
packages were introduced.

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 Advantages:
1. Smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable
2. Consumed less electricity and therefore dissipated less heat
3. Had faster and larger primary memory and secondary storage
4. Could be used as general purpose computers.
5. GUIs enabled people to learn to work with computers very easily. So the use
of computers in both office and home became widespread.
6. Networks allowed sharing of resources thereby efficient utilization of
computer hardware and software

Drawbacks
Despite being smaller, cheaper, faster, and more reliable with better energy
efficiency and user-friendly GUIs, fourth-generation computers faced challenges
such as software compatibility issues, dependency on complex operating systems,
potential security vulnerabilities in networks, and the need for continuous updates
and maintenance.

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Fifth Generation (1989-Present)

•The fifth generation computers are completely based on a new concept of

artificial intelligence.
• Although such computers are still in development, there are certain
applications like voice recognition which is widely being used today.
•In the fifth generation of computers the aim is to develop devices that
respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.

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CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS
Computers can be broadly classified into four categories based on their speed,
amount of data that they can hold, and price.

Classification of Computers

Super Computers Mainframe Computers Mini Computers Micro Computers

Dumb Intelligent
Terminal Terminal

Desktop Laptop Workstation Network Handheld

Smartphones Tablet PCs

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Supercomputers:
• The supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful, and most expensive
computer.
•Supercomputers were first developed in the 1980s to process large
amounts of data and to solve complex scientific problems.
•Supercomputers use parallel processing technology and can perform more
than one trillion calculations in a second.
• A single supercomputer can support thousands of users at the same time.
Such computers are mainly used for weather forecasting, nuclear energy
research, aircraft design, automotive design, online banking, controlling
industrial units, etc.
Examples of supercomputers :CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205,
and ETA A-10.

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Mainframe Computers:
•Mainframe computers are large-scale computers & expensive.
•Mainframes can also support multiple processors.
•For example, the IBM S/390 mainframe can support 50,000 users at the same
time.
•Users can access mainframes by either using terminals or via PCs.

The two types of terminals

•Dumb Terminals
• Intelligent Terminals

Dumb Terminals:
•Dumb terminals consist of only a monitor and a keyboard (or mouse).
•They do not have their own CPU and memory and use the mainframe
system’s CPU and storage devices.
Intelligent Terminals:
• intelligent terminals have their own processor and thus can perform some
processing operations.
•PCs are used as intelligent terminals to facilitate data access and other
services from the mainframe system.
EXAMPLES: banks, airline companies, and universities, where a large number
of users frequently access the data stored in their databases.
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Minicomputers:
•As the name suggests, minicomputers are smaller, cheaper, and slower than
mainframes.
•Also known as midrange computers, the capabilities of minicomputers fall between
mainframe and personal computers.
• Minicomputers are widely used in business, education, hospitals, government
organizations, etc.
•While some minicomputers can be used only by a single user, others are
specifically designed to handle multiple users simultaneously.
•Usually, single-user minicomputers are used for performing complex design tasks.
•As with mainframes, minicomputers can also be used as servers in a networked
environment, and hundreds of PCs can be connected to it.

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Microcomputers:
•Microcomputers, commonly known as PCs, are very small and cheap.
•The first microcomputer was designed by IBM in 1981 and was named IBM-PC.
Later on, many computer hardware companies copied this design and termed
their microcomputers as PC-compatible, which refers to any PC that is based on
the original IBM PC design.
•Another type of popular PC is designed by Apple.
•PCs designed by IBM and other PC- compatible computers have a different
architecture from that of Apple computers.
•Moreover, PCs and PC-compatible computers commonly use the Windows
operating system, while Apple computers use the Macintosh operating system
(MacOS).
•PCs can be classified into the following categories: Desktops, Laptops,
Workstation, Networks & Handheld computers

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Workstations
•Workstations are single-user computers that have the same features as PCs,
but their processing speed matches that of a minicomputer or mainframe
computer.
• Workstation computers have advanced processors, more RAM and storage
capacity than PCs.
•Therefore, they are more expensive and powerful than a normal desktop
computer.
• Although workstation computers are widely used as powerful single-user
computers by scientists, engineers, architects, and graphic designers, they can
also be used as servers in a networked environment
Network Computers
•Network computers have less processing power, memory, and storage than a
desktop computer.
•These are specially designed to be used as terminals in a networked
environment.
•Example: some network computers are specifically designed to access data
stored on a network (including the Internet and intranet).
•Network computers that are specifically designed to access only the Internet or
intranet are often known as Internet PCs or Internet boxes.
•Some network computers used in homes do not even have a monitor.
•Such computers may be connected to a television, which serves as the output
device. 24
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 Workstations.

Information appliances

Embedded computers

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 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS
• Word Processing • Sports
• Internet • Travel and Tourism
• Digital Audio or Video Composition Simulation
• Desktop Publishing • Astronomy
• e-Business • Education
• Bioinformatics • Industry and Engineering
• Health care • Robotics
• GIS and Remote Sensing • Decision Support Systems
• Meteorology • Expert Systems
• Multimedia and Animation
• Legal System
• Retail Business

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BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER

A computer is an electronic device which basically performs five major operations

which includes:
1) accepts data or instructions (input)
2) stores data
3) process data
4) displays results (output) and
5) controls and co-ordinates all operations inside a computer

Data and INPUT STORAGE OUTPUT Results

instructions

CPU
CONTROL UNIT

ARITHMETIC Flow of data and instructions

LOGIC UNIT
Control exercised by control unit

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Input:
•Process of entering data and instructions (also known as programs) into the
computer system
•Data and instructions can be entered by using different input devices such as
keyboard, mouse, scanner, and trackball
•Computers understand binary language, which consists of only two symbols
(0 and 1), so it is the responsibility of the input devices to convert the input
data into binary codes.

Storage:

•Storage is the process of saving data and instructions permanently in the

computer so that they can be used for processing
•The computer storage space not only stores the data and programs that
operate on that data but also stores the intermediate results and the final
results of processing

A computer has two types of storage areas:

•Primary storage:
•Secondary storage:
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Primary storage:
•Primary storage, also known as the main memory, is the storage area that is
directly accessible by the CPU at very high speeds.
•Used to store the data and parts of programs, the intermediate results of
processing, and the recently generated results of jobs that are currently being
worked on by the computer.
• Primary storage space is very expensive and therefore limited in capacity.
Another drawback of main memory is that it is volatile in nature; that is, as
soon as the computer is switched off, the information stored gets erased.
•It cannot be used as a permanent storage of useful data and programs for
future use. An example of primary storage is random access memory (RAM).
Secondary storage:
•Also known as auxiliary memory, this memory is just the opposite of primary
memory.
• It overcomes all the drawbacks of the primary storage area. It is cheaper,
non-volatile, and used to permanently store data and programs of those jobs
that are not being currently executed by the CPU.
• Secondary memory supplements the limited storage capacity of the primary
memory.
•An example is the magnetic disk used to store data, such as C and D drives,
for future use.
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Output:
•Output is the process of giving the result of data processing to the outside world
(external to the computer system).
•The results are given through output devices such as monitor, and printer. Since
the computer accepts data only in binary form and the result of processing is also
in binary form, the result cannot be directly given to the user.
•The output devices, therefore, convert the results available in binary codes into a
human-readable language before displaying it to the user.
Control:
•The control unit (CU) is the central nervous system of the entire computer
system.
• It manages and controls all the components of the computer system. It is the CU
that decides the manner in which instructions will be executed and operations
performed.
• It takes care of the step-by step processing of all operations that are performed
in the computer.
•CPU is a combination of the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit
(CU).
•The CPU is better known as the brain of the computer system because the entire
processing of data is done in the ALU, and the CU activates and monitors the
operations of other units (such as input, output, and storage) of the computer
system.
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Processing:
•The process of performing operations on the data as per the
instructions specified by the user (program) is called processing.
• Data and instructions are taken from the primary memory and
transferred to the ALU, which performs all sorts of calculations.
•The intermediate results of processing may be stored in the main
memory, as they might be required again.
• When the processing completes, the final result is then transferred to
the main memory.
•Hence, the data may move from main memory to the ALU multiple
times before the processing is over.

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