Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edit9on Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©

 Chapter 1: Introduction
 What Operating Systems Do
 Computer-System
Organization
 Computer-System
Architecture
 Operating-System Structure
 Operating-System
Operations
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 Storage Management
 Protection and Security
 Kernel Data Structures
 Computing Environments
 Open-Source Operating
Systems 1.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition
 Objectives
 To describe the basic organization of computer systems

 To provide a grand tour of the major components of operating

systems

 To give an overview of the many types of computing

environments

 To explore several open-source operating systems

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 What is an Operating System?

 A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a

computer and the computer hardware

 Operating system goals:

 Execute user programs and make solving user problems
easier
 Make the computer system convenient to use
 Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

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 Computer System Structure

 Computer system can be divided into four components:

 Hardware – provides basic computing resources
 CPU, memory, I/O devices
 Operating system
 Controls and coordinates use of hardware among
various applications and users
 Application programs – define the ways in which the
system resources are used to solve the computing
problems of the users
 Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games
 Users
 People, machines, other computers

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 Four Components of a Computer System

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 Operating System Definition

 OS is a resource allocator
 Manages all resources
 Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair
resource use

 OS is a control program
 Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and
improper use of the computer

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 Computer Startup
 bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
 Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as
firmware
 Initializes all aspects of system
 Loads operating system kernel and starts execution

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 Computer-System Operation
 I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently

 Each device controller is in charge of a particular device

type

 Each device controller has a local buffer

 CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local

buffers

 I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller

 Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its

operation by causing an interrupt
 Another technique is polling

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 Computer-System Architecture
 Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs
through mainframes)
 Most systems have special-purpose processors as well

 Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance

 Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
 Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault
tolerance
 Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing

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 How a Modern Computer Works

Von Neumann’s model

A von Neumann architecture

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 Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture

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 A Dual-Core Design

 UMA and NUMA

architecture variations
 Multi-chip and
multicore
 Systems containing
all chips vs. blade
servers
 Chassis containing
multiple separate
systems

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 Clustered Systems
 Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working
together
 Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
 Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
 Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby
mode
 Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running
applications, monitoring each other
 Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
 Applications must be written to use parallelization
 Some have distributed lock manager (DLM) to avoid
conflicting operations

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 Clustered Systems

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 Operating System Structure

 Multiprogramming needed for efficiency

 Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
 Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always
has one to execute
 A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
 One job selected and run via job scheduling
 When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another
job

 Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU

switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job while
it is running, creating interactive computing
 Response time should be < 1 second
 Each user has at least one program executing in memory
🢡process
 If several jobs ready to run at the same time 🢡 CPU scheduling
 If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and
out to run
Operating System  Virtual memory allows execution
Concepts – 9th Edition 1.16 of processes notSilberschatz,
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Galvin and
 Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System

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 Operating-System Operations
 Interrupt driven by hardware
 Software error or request creates exception or trap
 Division by zero, request for operating system service

 Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying

each other or the operating system
 Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
 User mode and kernel mode
 Mode bit provided by hardware

Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user


code or kernel code
 Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in
kernel mode
 System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it
to user
 Increasingly CPUs support multi-mode operations
 i.e. virtual machine manager (VMM) mode for guest VMs

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 Transition from User to Kernel Mode
 Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
 Set interrupt after specific period
 Operating system decrements counter
 When counter zero generate an interrupt
 Set up before scheduling process to regain control or
terminate program that exceeds allotted time

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 Process Management
 A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work
within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is
an active entity.
 Process needs resources to accomplish its task
 CPU, memory, I/O, files
 Initialization data
 Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable
resources
 Single-threaded process has one program counter
specifying
location of next instruction to execute

Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion
 Multi-threaded process has one program counter per
thread
 Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating
system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
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 Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:

 Creating and deleting both user and system

processes
 Suspending and resuming processes
 Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
 Providing mechanisms for process communication
 Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling

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 Memory Management
 All data in memory before and after processing

 All instructions in memory in order to execute

 Memory management determines what is in memory when

 Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to
users

 Memory management activities

 Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently
being used and by whom
 Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to
move into and out of memory
 Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed

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 Storage Management

 OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage

 Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
 Each medium is controlled by a device (i.e., disk drive,
tape drive)
 Varying properties include access speed, capacity,
data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
 File-System management
 Files usually organized into directories
 Access control on most systems to determine who can
access
what
 OS activities include
 Creating and deleting files and directories
 Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
 Mapping files onto secondary storage
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 Mass-Storage Management
 Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of
time
 Proper management is of central importance
 Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk
subsystem and its algorithms
 OS activities
 Free-space management
 Storage allocation
 Disk scheduling
 Some storage need not be fast
 Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
 Still must be managed – by OS or applications
 Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times)
and RW (read-write)

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 Protection and Security
 Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS
 Security – defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
 Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
 Systems generally first distinguish among users, to
determine who
can do what
 User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include
name and associated number, one per user
 User ID then associated with all files, processes of that
user to determine access control
 Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and
controls managed, then also associated with each
process, file
 Privilege escalation allows
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 Computing Environments - Traditional

 Stand-alone general purpose machines

 But blurred as most systems interconnect with others (i.e. the
Internet)
 Portals provide web access to internal systems
 Network computers (thin clients) are like Web terminals
 Mobile computers interconnect via wireless networks
 Networking becoming ubiquitous – even home systems use
firewalls to
protect home computers from Internet attacks

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 Computing Environments - Mobile

 Handheld smartphones, tablets, etc

 What is the functional difference between them and a
“traditional” laptop?
 Extra feature – more OS features (GPS, gyroscope)
 Allows new types of apps like augmented reality
 Use IEEE 802.11 wireless, or cellular data networks for
connectivity
 Leaders are Apple iOS and Google Android

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 Computing Environments – Distributed

 Distributed
 Collection of separate, possibly heterogeneous, systems
networked
together
 Network is a communications path, TCP/IP most common
– Local Area Network (LAN)
– Wide Area Network (WAN)
– Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
– Personal Area Network (PAN)
 Network Operating System provides features between systems
across network
 Communication scheme allows systems to exchange
messages
 Illusion of a single system

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 Computing Environments – Client-Server

 Client-Server Computing
 Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
 Many systems now servers, responding to requests
generated
by clients
 Compute-server system provides an interface to
client to request services (i.e., database)
 File-server system provides interface for clients to
store and retrieve files

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 Computing Environments - Peer-to-Peer

 Another model of distributed system

 P2P does not distinguish clients and

servers
 Instead all nodes are considered
peers
 May each act as client, server or both
 Node must join P2P network
 Registers its service with central
lookup service on network, or
 Broadcast request for service
and respond to requests for
service via discovery protocol
 Examples include Napster and
Gnutella,
Voice over IP (VoIP) such as Skype
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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

 Allows operating systems to run applications within other

OSes
 Vast and growing industry

 Emulation used when source CPU type different from target

type (i.e. PowerPC to Intel x86)
 Generally slowest method
 When computer language not compiled to native code –
Interpretation
 Virtualization – OS natively compiled for CPU, running guest
OSes also natively compiled
 Consider VMware running WinXP guests, each running
applications, all on native WinXP host OS
 VMM provides virtualization services

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

 Use cases involve laptops and desktops running multiple

OSes for exploration or compatibility
 Apple laptop running Mac OS X host, Windows as a
guest
 Developing apps for multiple OSes without having
multiple systems
 QA testing applications without having multiple
systems
 Executing and managing compute environments
within data
centers
 VMM can run natively, in which case they are also the
host
 There is no general purpose host then
 VMware ESX and Citrix XenServer ARE the hosts.

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 Computing Environments - Virtualization

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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Delivers computing, storage, even apps as a service across a

network
 Logical extension of virtualization as based on virtualization
 Amazon EC2 has thousands of servers, millions of
VMs, PBs of
storage available across the Internet, pay based on usage
 Many types
 Public cloud – available via Internet to anyone willing to
pay
 Private cloud – run by a company for the company’s own
use
 Hybrid cloud – includes both public and private
cloud components
 Software as a Service (SaaS) – one or more
applications available
via the Internet (i.e. word processor)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS) – software stackSilberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©
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 Computing Environments – Cloud Computing

 Cloud compute environments composed of traditional

OSes, plus VMMs, plus cloud management tools
 Internet connectivity requires security like firewalls
 Load balancers spread traffic across multiple
applications

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 Computing Environments – Real-Time Embedded Systems

 Real-time embedded systems most prevalent form of computers

 Vary considerable, special purpose, limited purpose OS, real-
time OS
 Use expanding
 Many other special computing environments as well
 Some have OSes, some perform tasks without an OS
 Real-time OS has well-defined fixed time constraints
 Processing must be done within constraint
 Correct operation only if constraints met

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