SPATIAL (SPACE)

STRUCTURES
Spatial (space) Structures

 The behavior of structure under loads can be

approximated as two-dimensional (planar

structures) or three-dimensional (space a spatial

structures).

 One has to note that, in general, all structures

behave in three dimensions when subject to

loads.

 However, for a large number of structures one

 Spatial (space) Structures

 Many typical framed structures belong to this

category.

 For spatial structures such approximation cannot be

made as these structures behave in three

dimensions.

 Many structures such as grids, domes, barrel vaults,

towers, cable nets, belong to this category.

 However, in these notes, the term spatial or space

Spatial (space) Structures

 Flat double or multi-layer grids, braced

barrel vaults, braced domes, hyperbolic-
paraboloids, and free-form
configurations are all forms of spatial
structures.
 Some spatial structures have positive
Gaussian curvature (synclastic) such as
domes, and some have negative
Gaussian curvature (anticlastic) such as
hyperbolic-paraboloids.
 Flat grids have zero Gaussian curvature.
Flat Double-Layer Grids (FDLG) - Square-on-Square Offset
Configuration
Double-Layer Braced Barrel Vaults (DLBBV)
Double-Layer Braced Domes
Hyperbolic-Paraboloids Double-Layer Grids
Freeform Double-Layer Grids
 Unlike most of the conventional building design processes for which the
overall design of the structure is often decided by the architect and the
structural engineer’s responsibility is to size members, the design of
spatial structures is a collaborative effort between architect and
engineer, which typically begins at early stages of the conceptual
design.
 The geometry types, module sizes, support conditions, materials, and
design approach are not determined at the early stages of the design of
spatial structures.
 Because the members of spatial structures are interconnected, they can
distribute loads effectively.
 This means that a concentrated load applied at a point on the structure
can be resisted by members a large distance from it.
 Due to the low self-weight of these structures, the total costs of
foundations and columns are relatively small.
 Spatial structures can be assembled in a shop and transported to the
site for erection.
connectors/nodes

A Typical Spatial Structure Connector

(Node)
Connectors/Nodes
 The manufacturing of the connectors (or
nodes) is one of the most important factors in
cost-effectiveness of spatial structures. An ideal
connector can be easily mass produced, used to
join members at various angles, and resist the
forces acting on it.
 High quality computer graphics software and
hardware and the use of Building Information
Modeling have also made it possible to design
and fabricate nodes with very strict tolerances
that can accommodate many members to be
connected to them.
Space Frames
 A space frame refers to a spatial structure whose
members are connected rigidly to each other so that they
transfer moment and shear in addition to axial forces. In
comparison, space trusses are pin-jointed and as a result,
their members are in tension or compression and do not
transfer moment or shear.
 In most cases, the additional reduction in member forces
and deflection of space frames is less than 10% as
compared to space trusses. Therefore, the additional
material required to provide rigid connections does not
justify the saving in the size of structural members. As a
result, the term “space frame” is also the term used for
pin-jointed three-dimensional structures, such as space
trusses. Space frames are also called ‘braced
frameworks’, ‘latticed structures’ or ‘reticulated
structures’.
Space Frames
 Space frames are either constructed from prefabricated
modular units (modular system) or individual members
assembled together using different types of connectors
or nodes (nodular system). These systems are typically
proprietary.
 It is also possible to construct space frames by field-
welding members to each other; this is generally a more
costly alternative.
 When field welding, the joints are considered to be
rigidly connected, capable of transferring moment and
shear in addition to axial forces.
 Nature has many examples of repetitive spatial packing
configurations used in space frames:
Space Frames
 The hexagonal prisms of honeycomb; plant cell
organisms, the repetitive organization of
crystals and snowflakes, etc.
 The triangle is the simplest stable geometry,
which means that it is not possible to change
its shape in-plane because there are three
interconnected members.
 This is not the case for polygons such as
squares, rectangles, hexagons, or octagons.
The bracing members of space frames create
the triangulation that stabilizes the structure.
Space Frames
 Space frames generally consist of double and
multi-layer grids in flat or free forms. Flat space
frames have been typically used as roof systems,
but they can also be used to support floors.
 Atriums, entryways, canopies, arenas, exhibit
pavilions, hangars, convention centers, mosques,
terminals, grandstands, sport facilities, reservoir
covers, churches, swimming pool covers, shopping
malls, stadium pavilions, sloped glazing, large-
span warehouses, towers, space stations, and
floating platforms may also be constructed from
space frames.
Single-Layer and Double-Layer Grids

A grid can be comprised of two or more sets of parallel

members intersecting each other at an angle and loaded
perpendicular to their planes.
 If all the members of a grid are in the same plane, it is
called a single-layer grid.
 There are different types of single-layer grid used as the
main structural systems for roofs and floors.
 These interconnected patterns consist of two-way, three-
way or four-way configurations, with the most common
pattern being rectangular grid in which the intersecting
elements are perpendicular to each other.
 The diagonal grid, in which the members are oriented in
an oblique manner to the supporting structure along the
edge, has great rigidity (or stiffness), i.e., substantial
reduction in deflection.
Rectangular & diagonal
grids
Two way grids
Four way grids
Three-way single-layer grids
 The three-way single-layer grids are generally used for larger
span or when the structure is subjected to large concentrated
loads.
 This system has a more even stress distribution that the two-
way grids.
 The four-way grids are made of a combination of rectangular
and diagonal grids.
 These systems are not commonly used. For up to almost 30 ft
span single-layer grids are efficient, however, for larger spans
double-layer grids are more appropriate, which can be used for
spans up to about 300 ft.
 Since grids are very rigid structures, they require members that
are shallower than planar systems.
 The span to depth ratio for single layer rectangular
grids is about 30 and for diagonal grids is about 40.
 Double layer grids (DLGs) are extensions of single-layer
grid systems, which consist of two sets of parallel beams
connected to each other at right or oblique angles and
loaded by forces perpendicular to the plane of the grid.
 Even though DLGs are customarily made of parallel planes,
it is possible to create free-forms by modifying the shape of
the top and bottom layers independently.
 There are generally two main types of DLGs:
 Direct (Truss) Grids: In this type of system the members
of the top and bottom layers are in the same plane
resulting in a series of intersecting planar trusses.
 Space Grids: These are made of a series of polyhedral
units with triangular, square, pentagonal or hexagonal
bases.
Multi-Layer Grids

 Multi-Layer Grids
 When a Double-Layer-Grid (DLG) is used for a very long
span (for example more than 300 ft) with large applied
loads, the structure deflection is the governing design
parameter, and therefore the required depth becomes very
large.
 If the module sizes are small, the diagonal members will
have sharp angles.
 If the module sizes are increased the compression
members become excessively long and large member
sizes will be required.
 For such cases, a third layer at the half-way between the
top and bottom layers can be added to create a multi-layer
grid (MLG).
Multi-Layer Grids

 This allows the module sizes to be reduced and the

angle of the diagonal members to be within a
reasonable range.
 Each layer can have a different configuration. The
middle layer is usually lightly-stressed and
therefore made from smaller size members than
DLG would have required, however, the number of
members and joints becomes large.
 This additional cost from the extra members and
joints is usually less than the savings achieved
from using smaller size components. MLG
structures have been proposed to cover cities.
Multi-Layer Grids

 While the middle layer carries very small loads compared to

the top and bottom layers it stabilizes the entire structure
and reduces the deflection significantly.
 The benefits of MLGs are:
 Reduction in deflection due to increase in depth.
 Reduction of the maximum member forces while using
standard size members.
 Smaller size modules compared to the depth (decking may
not need intermediate support members or ‘purlins’)
 MLGs can also be used for:
 Providing additional stiffness (trussing)
 Edge supporting for large span open sides (hangers).
 Additional supports for large localized loads.