ECE590 Electronics &

Microprocessors

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal,

UiTM Shah Alam
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (PO)
PO1 Ability to acquire and apply knowledge of
engineering fundamentals.

COURSE OUTCOMES (CO)

CO1 To develop knowledge in the operation simple electronic
circuits : diode and BJT
CO2 To learn and develop knowledge in logic devices and
circuits
CO3 To learn microprocessor system, programming and simple
interface techniques.
CHAPTER 1: CIRCUIT THEORY
 Circuit Concepts :
 Voltage,V & Current, I,
 Resistance, R; Inductance, L; & Capacitance, C
 Circuit Laws :
 Ohm’s Law,
 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL),
 Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL),
 Circuit Elements in Series & Parallel,
 Thevenin’s Theorem
What is voltage and current?
 Voltage is the measure of specific potential
energy (potential energy per unit charge)
between two locations.
 When a voltage source is connected to a circuit,
the voltage will cause a uniform flow of electrons
through that circuit called a current.
Analogy:
Concept of Voltage & Current
Ohm’s Law
 Ohm’s Law simply states that current in a
resistive circuit is directly proportional to its
applied voltage and inversely proportional to
its resistance.
Example – Ohm’s Law
Cont..

 As with all circuit elements, we need to know how the current

through and voltage across the device are related
 Materials with a linear relationship satisfy Ohm’s law: v = ± mi
 The slope, m, is equal to the resistance of the element
 Ohm’s Law: v = iR
Voltage Symbols
Series Resistor
R1 R2
I
+ VR1 - + VR2 -
+
Vs VRN RN
-
- VR3 +

R3

 Total Resistance: RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + …….. + RN

The supplied power = Total power dissipated by
resistors
PT = PR1 + PR2 + PR3 + …….. + PRN

VS
I
RT
Parallel Resistor
IT
I1 I2 I3

Vs R1 R2 RN

1 1 1 1
   ....... 
RT R1 R2 RN
The total current is equal to the total sum of the branch current,

IT = I1 + I2 + …….. + IN
Exercise:

0.2941mA
9.66V
4kΩ
6.76V
1.324mA
Kirchoff’s Laws
 The foundation of circuit analysis is
 The defining equations for circuit elements (e.g. Ohm’s law)
 Kirchoff’s current law (KCL)
 Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL)
 The defining equations tell us how the voltage and current
within a circuit element are related
 Kirchoff’s laws tell us how the voltages and currents in
different branches are related
Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL)

 Kirchoff’s Current Law (KCL): the algebraic sum

of currents entering a node (or a closed boundary) is
zero
 The sum of currents entering a node is equal to the
sum of the currents leaving a node
Kirchoff’s Current Law for Boundaries
Example – KCL
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

 Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL): the algebraic sum of

voltages around a closed path (or loop) is zero
 Voltage drop at each element must be same with the
voltage supply.

v4 + v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
 Example – KVL Solution:

Consider the circuit shown in the figure From Loop 1 we get:

above, with the following Parameters: V1 − VR3 − VR1 = 0
V1 = 15V
V2 = 7V From Loop 2 we get:
V2 − VR3 − VR2 = 0
R1 = 20Ω
R2 = 5Ω
R3 = 10Ω
Find current through R3 using Kirchhoff's
Voltage Law.
 Continue.. It is clear that: from (3)

..... (1)

and
V2 + (I1 − I2) * R3 − I2 * R2 = 0
Substitute the Above Result into (2)

... (2)

By equating above (1) and (2) we can

eliminate I2 and hence get the following:

... (3)

The Negative sign for IR3 only tells us that

Current IR3 flows in the same direction to I2
direction.
 Example:
 Resistors of R1= 10Ω, R2 = 4Ω and R3 = 8Ω are connected up to two
batteries (of negligible resistance) as shown. Find the current through each
resistor.
 Solution:
Assume currents to flow in directions
indicated by arrows.

Apply KCL on Junctions C and A.
Therefore, current in mesh ABC = i1
Current in Mesh CA = i2
Then current in Mesh CDA = i1 – i2
 Now, Apply KVL on Mesh ABC, 20V are acting in
clockwise direction. Equating the sum of IR
products, we get;
10i1 + 4i2 = 20 ……………. (1)

 In mesh ACD, 12 volts are acting in clockwise

direction, then:
8(i1–i2) – 4i2= 12
 8i1 – 8i2 – 4i2= 12
8i1 – 12i2 = 12 ……………. (2)
 Multiplying equation (1) by 3;
30i1 + 12i2 = 60
 Solving for i1
30i1 + 12i2 = 60
8i1 – 12i2 = 12
 ______________
38i1 = 72

 The above equation can be also simplified by Elimination
or Cramer’s Rule.
 i1 = 72/38 = 1.895 Amperes = Current in 10 Ohms resistor
 Substituting this value in (1), we get:
10(1.895) + 4i2 = 20
 4i2 = 20 – 18.95
 i2 = 0.263 Amperes = Current in 4 Ohms Resistors.
 Now,
i1 – i2 = 1.895 – 0.263 = 1.632 Amperes
Voltage Divider Rule
 The voltage divider is useful in
determining the voltage drop across a
resistor within a series circuit.
Example
Analyze a simple series circuit, determining
the voltage drops across individual
resistors
Current Divider Rule
 Current Divider Rule is useful in
determining the current flow through one
branch of parallel circuit.
IT
I1 I2 R2
I1  T
+ + R 1  R2
V1 R1 V2
Vs - -
R1
I2  T
R 1  R2
SHORT CIRCUIT

 An element with zero resistance (R = 0) is

called a ‘short circuit’
 Often just drawn as a wire (line)
OPEN CIRCUIT

 Current can only exist when there is a conductive path

(e.g. a length of a wire).
 In the circuit shown in the figure above, I = 0, since there
is no conductor between points a and b. We refer to this
as an ‘open circuit’, with infinite resistance (R = ∞)
Thevenin’s Theorem
 Thevenin's Theorem states that it is possible to simplify any
linear circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent circuit
with just a single voltage source and series resistance
connected to a load
 Thevenin’s Theorem
 Step by Step Procedure with Examples.
 A French Engineer, M.L Thevenin , made
one of these quantum leaps in
1893. Thevenin’s Theorem is not by itself
an analysis tool, but the basis for a very
useful method of simplifying active
circuits and complex networks because we
can solve complex linear circuits and
networks especially electronic networks
easily and quickly.
 Thevenin’s Theorem may be stated below:

 Any Linear Electric Network or complex
circuit with Current and Voltage sources can
be replaced by an equivalent circuit
containing of a single independent Voltage
Source VTH and a Series Resistance RTH.
 You may Also Read Norton’s Theorem.
Easy Step by Step Procedure with
Example (Pictorial Views)
Simple Steps to Analyze Electric Circuit through Thevenin’s Theorem

1.Open the load resistor.

2.Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin
Voltage (VTH).
3.Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources.
4.Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the Thevenin
Resistance (RTH).
5.Now, Redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (V TH) in Step
(2) as voltage Source and measured open circuit resistance (R TH) in step
(4) as a series resistance and connect the load resistor which we had
removed in Step (1). This is the Equivalent Thevenin Circuit of that Linear
Electric Network or Complex circuit which had to be simplified and
analyzed by Thevenin’s Theorem. You have done.
6.Now find the Total current flowing through Load resistor by using
the Ohm’s Law IT = VTH/ (RTH + RL).
 Example:
 Find VTH, RTHand the load current flowing through and
load voltage across the load resistor in fig (1) by using
Thevenin’s Theorem.
 Solution:-
 Step 1.
 Open the 5kΩ load resistor (Fig 2).
 Step 2.
 Calculate / measure the Open Circuit Voltage. This is the Thevenin
Voltage (VTH). Fig (3).
 We have already removed the load resistor from figure 1, so the
circuit became an open circuit as shown in fig 2. Now we have to
calculate the Thevenin’s Voltage. Since 3mA Current flows in both
12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors as this is a series circuit because current
will not flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open.
 So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ) will appear across the 4kΩ
resistor. We also know that current is not flowing through
the 8kΩ resistor as it is open circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor
is in parallel with 4k resistor. So the same voltage (i.e.
12V) will appear across the 8kΩ resistor as 4kΩ resistor.
Therefore 12V will appear across the AB terminals. So,
 VTH = 12V
 Step 3.
 Open Current Sources and Short Voltage Sources. Fig
(4)
 Step 4.
 Calculate /measure the Open Circuit Resistance. This is the
Thevenin Resistance (RTH)
 We have Reduced the 48V DC source to zero is equivalent to
replace it with a short in step (3), as shown in figure (3) We can see
that 8kΩ resistor is in series with a parallel connection of 4kΩ
resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
 8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)


 RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]

 RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ
 RTH = 11kΩ
 Step 5.
 Connect the RTHin series with Voltage Source VTH and re-
connect the load resistor. This is shown in fig (6) i.e.
Thevenin circuit with load resistor. This the Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit
 Step 6.
 Now apply the last step
i.e Ohm’s law . calculate the total
load current & load voltage as
shown in fig 6.
 IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)
 = 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) → =
12/16kΩ
 IL= 0.75mA
 And
 VL = ILx RL
 VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ
 VL= 3.75V

 Now compare this simple circuit with the original circuit
of figure 1. Can you see how much easier it will be to
measure/calculate the load current for different load
resistors by Thevenin’s Theorem?
Example

Given the following circuit, determine the

equivalent Thevenin’s Circuit between
points A & B. Calculate the:
 Equivalent Thevenin’s Voltage, VTH
 Equivalent Thevenin’s Resistance, RTH
Example

Step 0: The original circuit

Step 1: Calculating the equivalent output

voltage
Continue..

Step 2: Calculating the equivalent

Step 3: The equivalent circuit
resistance