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Chapter 3

Introduction To Physical Layer

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Example 3.1

What is the bit rate for the signal in Figure

Example 3.2

What is the frequency of the signal in Figure

Example 3.3 Bandwidth and data rate
A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a
middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two
extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency
domain of the signal.
Solution
The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz.
Figure shows the frequency domain and the bandwidth.

3.3
Example 3.4 Bandwidth and data rate
We have a low-pass channel with bandwidth 100 kHz. What is the maximum bit
rate of this channel?.
Solution
The minimum bandwidth, a rough approximation, is
BW = bit rate /2
The bit rate is 2 times the available bandwidth, or bit rate =200 kbps.

Example 3.5 Attenuation

Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power
is reduced to one half. Calculate the attenuation.

3.4
Example 3.6 Attenuation
A signal travels through an amplifier, and its power is increased 10 times.
Sol:
This means that P2 = 10P1. In this case, the amplification (gain of power) can be
calculated as

Example 3.7
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in milliwatts. In this
case, it is referred to as dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm, where Pm
is the power in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal if its dB m = −30.
Solution
We can calculate the power in the signal as

3.5
Example 3.8 Attenuation
The attenuation of a signal is -10 dB. What is the final signal power if it was
originally 5 W?
Sol:

Example 3.9
A periodic composite signal with a bandwidth of 2000 Hz is
composed of two sine waves. The first one has a frequency of
100 Hz with a maximum amplitude of 20 V; the second one
has a maximum amplitude of 5V. Draw the bandwidth.

Solution

3.6
Example 3.8 Attenuation
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer (dB/km). If
the signal at the beginning of a cable with −0.3 dB/km has a power of 2 mW,
what is the power of the signal at 5 km?
Solution
The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 × (−0.3) = −1.5 dB. We can calculate
the power as

Example 3.9 SNR

The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is 1 μW; what
are the values of SNR and SNRdB?
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as follows:

3.7
Example 3.10 SNR
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are
Solution
The values of SNR and SNRdB for a noiseless channel are

We can never achieve this ratio in real life; it is an ideal.

Example 3.11

3.8
 3-5 DATA RATE LIMITS
A very important consideration in data communications
is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a
channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1.The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise).

Two theoretical formulas were developed to calculate

the data rate:
one by Nyquist for a noiseless channel,(The maximum bit rate)

another by Shannon for a noisy channel.(the theoretical

highest data rate for a noisy channel)
3.9
Example 3.12

Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a

signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Example 3.13

Consider the same noiseless channel transmitting a signal with four signal
levels (for each level, we send 2 bits). The maximum bit rate can be
calculated as

3.10
Example 3.14 data rate
A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?
Sol:
We calculate the number of bits from the following formula. Each signal level is
represented by 3 bits.

Example 3.15
A digital signal has nine levels. How many bits are needed per level?
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3.11
Example 3.16

We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 20

kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution
We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either increase the number of
levels or reduce the bit rate. If we have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If
we have 64 levels, the bit rate is 240 kbps.

3.12
Example 3.17

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is
almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint.
Sol: For this channel the capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless of the bandwidth. In
other words, we cannot receive any data through this channel.

Example 3.18
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A
telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 to 3300 Hz) assigned for
data communications. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the
capacity is calculated as
Sol:

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is 34.860 kbps. If we want to
send data faster than this, we can either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve
the signal-to-noise ratio.
3.13
Example 3.19

The signal-to-noise ratio is often given in decibels. Assume that SNR dB = 36

and the channel bandwidth is 2 MHz. The theoretical channel capacity can
be calculated as
Sol:

When the SNR is very high, we can assume that SNR + 1 is almost the same
as SNR. In these cases, the theoretical channel capacity can be simplified to
C 5 B 3 SNRdB. For example, we can calculate the theoretical capacity of the
previous example as

3.14
Example 3.20 Using Both Limits
We have a channel with a 1-MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is
63. What are the appropriate bit rate and signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find the upper limit.

The Shannon formula gives us 6 Mbps, the upper limit. For better
performance we choose something lower, 4 Mbps. Then we use the Nyquist
formula to find the number of signal levels.

3.15
 Problems
1- What is the channel capacity for a teleprinter channel
with a 300-Hz bandwidth and a signal-to-noise ratio of 3
dB?

2- What is the maximum data rate for a voice-grade line

with a bandwidth of 4K Hz and a S/N ratio of 10000 to 1?

For the above question, what is the maximum data rate

if the S/N ratio is now enhanced to 50dB?

3- We measure the performance of a telephone line

(4 KHz of bandwidth). When the signal is 10 V, the
noise is 5 mV. What is the maximum data rate
supported by this telephone line?

3.16
 3-6 PERFORMANCE
One important issue in networking is the performance of
the network—how good is it? In this section, we introduce
terms that we need for future chapters.
3.6.1 Bandwidth
One characteristic that measures network performance is bandwidth (BW).
BW can be used in two different contexts with two different measuring
values: bandwidth in hertz and bandwidth in bits per second..

Example: The bandwidth of a subscriber line is 4 kHz for voice or data. The
bandwidth of this line for data transmission can be up to 56,000 bps using a
sophisticated modem to change the digital signal to analog.

If the telephone company improves the quality of the line and increases the bandwidth
to 8 kHz, we can send 112,000 bps by using the same technology.
Relationship
There is an relationship between the BW in hertz and BW in bits per second.
Basically, an increase in bandwidth in hertz means an increase in bandwidth
in bits per second.
3.17
 3.6.2 Throughput
The throughput is a measure of how fast we can actually send data
through a network. Although, at first glance, bandwidth in bits per
second and throughput seem the same, they are different. A link may
have a bandwidth of B bps, but we can only send T bps through this
link with T always less than B.

Example 3.21
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an average of 12,000 frames
per minute with each frame carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the
throughput of this network?
Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

The throughput is almost one-fifth of the bandwidth in this case.

3.18
 3.6.3 Latency (Delay)

The latency or delay defines how long it takes for an entire message to
completely arrive at the destination from the time the first bit is sent
out from the source.
We can say that latency is made of four components:
propagation time, transmission time, queuing time and processing
delay.

3.19
Example 3.22
What is the propagation time if the distance between the two
points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed to be
2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.

Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic Ocean
in only 50 ms if there is a direct cable between the source
and the destination.

3.20
Example 3.22
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for
a 2.5-KB (kilobyte) message if the bandwidth of the
network is 1 Gbps? Assume that the distance between the
sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light travels at
2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission time as

Note that in this case, because the message is short and the
bandwidth is high, the dominant factor is the propagation
time, not the transmission time.
3.21
Example 3.23
What are the propagation time and the transmission time for
a 5-MB (megabyte) message (an image) if the bandwidth of
the network is 1 Mbps? Assume that the distance between
the sender and the receiver is 12,000 km and that light
travels at 2.4 × 108 m/s.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as

We can calculate the propagation and transmission times as

3.22
 3.6.5 Jitter

Another performance issue that is related to delay is

jitter. We can roughly say that jitter is a problem if
different packets of data encounter different delays
and the application using the data at the receiver site
is time-sensitive (audio and video data, for example).
If the delay for the first packet is 20 ms, for the
second is 45 ms, and for the third is 40 ms, then the
real-time application that uses the packets endures
jitter. We discuss jitter in greater detail in Chapter
28.

3.23