THE IMMUNE

SYSTEM
HISTORY OF IMMUNOLOGY
• In 1796, Edward Jenner carried out an experiment on the smallpox
disease. This experiment marked the beginning of the study of the
immune system. He noticed that milkmaids who once suffered from
cowpox were immune to the small pox disease. He began injecting
people with materials that could cause cowpox (vaccination). They all
suffered from the mild illness and many were immuned against the
small pox disease.
HISTORY OF IMMUNOLOGY
• In the 1880s, the French scientist, Louis Pasteur, the father of
immunology was studying fowl cholera. He sampled the bacteria from
the diseased chickens and injected them into the body of healthy
ones. Pasteur left the bacteria culture on a shelf and left on a two
weeks vacation. On his return, Pasteur injected the bacteria culture
into the body of the chickens previously injected. The chickens
showed a mild illness and then recovered . On subsequent injection,
the chickens showed no sign of the disease.
IMMUNE SYSTEM
• The immune system is the basic defense system of the body that
protect the body from basic pathogens and diseases. The immune
system detect any foreign pathogen that invades the body and
organizes itself to defend the body. When the immune system fails to
solve the problem, it leads to the acquisition of infections and illness
which may lead to the death of the organism. On the contrary, when
the immune system over fights the pathogens or works
uncontrollably, it may lead to allergic reactions and autoimmune
diseases. There are two divisions of the immune system; innate
immunity and adaptive immunity
INNATE IMMUNITY
• Innate immunity is the first line of defense against pathogens. This
form of immunity is acquired from birth. Innate immunity is
evolutionary older than the adaptive immunity.

•INNATE
• IN- From within or inside
• NATE-From birth
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INNATE
IMMUNITY
• Most primitive immune system found in all multicellular organisms
• It utilizes pattern recognition receptors.
• It’s non-specific
• It doesn’t keep memory of the previous invading pathogen
• It responds immediately to the invasion of pathogens
• It has physical barriers, eg skin and mucous membrane.
• It has chemical barriers, eg stomach acid and enzymes in saliva and tears
• It has cellular components ,eg phagocytes, natural killer cells, dendritic cells.
• Its antigen independent
COMPONENTS OF INNATE IMMUNE
SYSTEM

First Line of
• Physical Barriers
• Chemical Barriers
• Biological Barriers

Defense •
•
Inflammatory Response
Complement Proteins

Second line • Cellular components

of defence
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
• Skin
The skin acts a physical barrier to prevent the entry of pathogen
Desquamation of the skin removes bacteria attached to the skin
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
• Mucous membrane
The mucous membrane is a group of epithelial cells lining the surface of
the respiratory, digestive and urogenital tract.
The membrane of the respiratory tract is made up of fingerlike cells
that beat in an opposite direction to sweep out the pathogens and dust
particles.
Physical barriers
The mucous membrane secretes mucous which traps
pathogens. The mucous also contains phagocytes that
engulf the pathogens.
CHEMICAL BARRIERS
The skin secretes sweat which contains sodium chloride to create an
unfavorable environment for bacteria growth.
The saliva in the mouth and mucous also contains lysozyme that
destroys bacteria cell wall
The tears gland produces and secretes tears to moisturize and flush
away microbes on the conjunctiva. Tears also contains lysozyme which
destroys bacteria cell wall.
The acid in the stomach provides a hostile environment to ingested
pathogens
Biological barriers
• The skin and mucous membrane serves as a habitat for normal flora.
These normal flora produce antimicrobial substances which inhibits
the growth of pathogens. They also compete with the pathogens for
nutrients and colonization.
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
• Inflammation is the body’s reaction to injury or infection. It helps
remove pathogens or damaged cells and starts tissue repair.
Macrophages and dendritic cells detect harmful stimuli using
specialized receptors. Blood vessels widen (vasodilation), allowing
more blood and immune cells to reach the site, causing redness and
heat. Increased vascular permeability makes vessels leaky, letting
immune cells and fluid enter the tissue, leading to swelling.
Neutrophils and macrophages migrate to the area to destroy
pathogens or clear dead cells. Once the harmful stimuli are removed,
the body initiates tissue repair and reduces inflammation
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE
The main signs of inflammation include redness, heat, swelling, pain, and
sometimes loss of function. Acute inflammation is a short-term, fast response that
resolves once the injury heals. Chronic inflammation lasts longer and can result in
tissue damage. Prolonged inflammation can contribute to diseases like rheumatoid
arthritis, cardiovascular disease, or cancer. Inflammation is crucial for healing, but if
it’s uncontrolled, it can cause serious health issues.
COMPLEMENT PROTEINS
• The complement system is a key part of the immune system that helps protect the body
from infections. It consists of over 30 proteins, which usually remain inactive in the blood
until triggered. Once activated, these proteins follow a series of steps to fight infections.

• One of the main functions of the complement system is to tag pathogens like bacteria,
making them easier for immune cells to detect and eliminate. It also draws immune cells
to the infection site. Additionally, the complement system can break apart the membranes
of pathogens, causing them to burst and die.

• Another important role is removing dead cells and immune complexes from the body. It
enhances both the immediate and specific immune responses. Careful regulation is
needed to avoid damaging the body’s own tissues, as improper control can lead to
autoimmune disorders.
CELLULAR COMPONENTS
The cellular components are made up of group of leukocytes that fight
off pathogens.
LEUKOCYTES
LEUKO- white
CYTES- cells
PHAGOCTES
Phagocytes; are cells that engulf and digest pathogens. The phagocytes
consist of macrophages and neutrophils
MACROPHAGES
• Macrophages also act as antigen presenting cells. Macrophages after
engulfing bacteria cells, carry the bacteria receptors or the bacteria
itself on Major Histocompactibility Complex II on their cell membrane
and presents it to the helper T cells. Each helper T cells have a unique
TCR (t cell receptor) which recognizes specific antigens presented by
the MHC II(Major Histocompactibility Complex II) of the antigen
presenting cells. The immune system has about billions of helper t
cells, each having a unique t cell receptor. This allows the immune
system recognize a wide range of diseases.
NEUTROPHILS
Neutrophils; are the most abundant of the leukocytes. They have a
short lifespan of about 1-2 days. They respond quickly to immune
emergencies. Neutrophills contain granules filled with enzymes and
antimicrobial substances for killing antigens. They are sometimes called
polymorphonuclear cells because their nucleus are divided into
segments.
Polymorphonuclear
POLY- many
MORPHO- shaped
NUCLEAR- nucleus
NEUTROPHILS
• Neutrophills engulf antigens through a process called phagocytosis.
They form phagosomes that fuses with the granules, releasing
enzymes to digest the antigens. They can also release granules
containing enzymes to destroy antigens and infected cells.
Neutrophills assemble at the site of infection as a result of proteins
histamine released by the mast cells at the site of invasion. Over
activation of neutrophils can cause autoimmune diseases such as
rheumatoid arthritis.
DENDRITIC CELLS
• Dendritic cells are produced from monocytes. They are found near
external surfaces. Dendritic cells protect the body capturing
pathogens and presenting then to the helper t cells through the use
of their Major Histocompatibility complex. After capturing pathogens,
they migrate to the lymphoid organs to mature where they lose some
of their ability to capture microbes.
MONOCYTES
• Monocytes migrate into tissues and become macrophages and
dendritic cells
 Hemopoietic
Stem cell

Lymphoid Myeloid
stem cells progenitor

Lymphocytes Granulocytes

T cells B cells
Neutrophil Eosinophils Basophils Mast cells Monocytes
progenitor progenitor

Helper T Cytotoxic Suppressor T Memory

Killer T cells Plasma cells Dendritic Macrophage
cells cells cells cells
MAST CELL
• Mast cells are leukocytes found in skin, respiratory and
gastrointestinal lining. They have granules that secrete histamine,
cytokines and heparin. These chemicals trigger inflammation,
increased blood flow and other immune responses such as allergic
reactions. When activated by allergens can cause severe allergic
reactions such as itching, swelling, bronchoconstriction and life
threatening anaphylaxis.
NATURAL KILLER CELLS
• Natural killer cells defend the body by targeting and destroying
cancerous cells and virus infected cells. Natural killer cells do not need
prio exposure to act. They recognize cancerous cells an viral infected
cells by the Damage Associated Molecular Pattern displayed on their
membrane. Virus infected cells also release chemicals called
interferons ton alert the immune system of infections. These
interferons draw natural killer cells and cytotoxic t cells to the virus
infected cells. The natural killer cells release the toxins , such as
perforins and granzymes which induces cell death(apoptosis)
T LYMPHOCYTES
• Helper t cells are the coordinating cells of the immune system. They
are lymphocytes maturing in the thymus gland, hence the name t
cells. They do not attack pathogens directly of destroy viral infected
cells, but instead assist macrophages, dendritic cells and B
lymphocytes to destroy the pathogens. The Antigen Presenting Cells
activate the helper t cells by attaching pathogen molecule to the t
receptor of the Helper t cell and releasing interleukin 1.
T LYMPHOCYTES
• The activated helper t cells release interleukin 2 which triggers the
multiplication of Antigen Presenting Cells that have bound to that
pathogen molecule. The helper t cells also trigger the multiplication of
B lymphocytes that have bounded to the pathogen molecule and
cause tem to differentiate into plasma cells producing antibodies.
 B LYMPHOCYTES
• B lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow. B lymphocytes produce
antibodies and can act as an Antigen Presenting Cell.
• The B lymphocytes bind to antigen molecules and present them to
the helper t cells. The helper t cells simultaneously bind to the antigen
molecule and become activated. Each B lymphocyte has a unique B
receptor for binding to one specific antigen. There are about one
billion B lymphocytes in the immune system enabling the immune
system recognize a wide range of antigens.
 B LYMPHOCYTES
• Some B lymphocytes differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells.
Plasma cells produce antibodies that bind to that specific antigen.
These antibodies make the pathogen look palatable to the natural
killer cells, cytotoxic cells and killer cells.
• The memory cells keep a memory of the pathogen encountered so
that in the future, if the same antigen invades again the immune
system can defend quickly and more effectively.
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY