Motivation

Learning Outcome
• Introduction
• Definitions
• Nature of Motivation
• Significance of Motivation
• Motivation Process
• Theories of Motivation
 Motivation
Motivation Latin Word -Movere -To Move
Definition : Motivation can be defined as an inner
state that activates, energizes or moves behaviour
towards goal.
Motivation is the word derived from the word
'motive' which means needs, desires, wants or
drives within the individuals. It is the process of
stimulating people to actions to accomplish the
goals. In the work goal context the psychological
factors stimulating the people's behaviour can be -
desire for money.
 Definitions
Motivation is a theoretical construct used to explain behavior. It
represents the reasons for people’s actions, desires, and needs.
Motivation can also be defined as one’s direction to behavior, or what
causes a person to want to repeat a behavior and vice versa.
A motive is what prompts the person to act in a certain way, or at least
develop an inclination for specific behavior.
For example, when someone eats food to satisfy their hunger, or when a
student does his/her work in school because he/she wants a good
grade. Both show a similar connection between what we do and why
we do it.
According to Likert, “It is the core of management which shows that
every human being gives him a sense of worth in face-to face groups
which are most important to him….A supervisor should strive to treat
individuals with dignity and a recognition of their personal worth.”
At the other end of the range of complexity, hunger is frequently the
motive for seeking out and consuming food.
McFarland: Motivation refers to the way in
which urges, drives, desires-aspirations,
strivings, or needs direct, control or explain
the behaviour of human beings.
• Berelson and Steiner: “A motive is an inner state that
energizes, activates, or moves and directs or channels
behaviour goals.”
• Lillis: “It is the stimulation of any emotion or desire
operating upon one’s will and promoting or driving it to
action.”
• Memoria: “A willingness to expend energy to achieve a
goal or reward. It is a force that activates dormant
energies and sets in motion the action of the people. It
is the function that kindles a burning passion for action
among the human beings of an organisation.”
 Motivation

INTENSITY DIRECTION

PERSISTEN
CE

• Intensity : how hard a person tries.

• Direction: intensity needs to be channeled in a
direction favorable to the organization for job
satisfaction..
• Persistence : a measure of how long a person can
maintain his or her effort…
 Nature of Motivation

• Based on Motives
• Affected by Motivating
• Goal-directed behaviour
• Related to satisfaction
• Person motivated in totality
• Complex process
 Types of Need
Thus needs may be grouped into three categories:

1. Primary needs : Primary needs are also known as physiological, biological,

basic, or unlearned needs. However, the term primary is more comprehensive
as compared to other terms. Primary needs are animal drives which are
essential for survival. These needs are common to all human beings, though
their intensity may differ. Some of the needs are food, sex, sleep, air to
breathe, satisfactory temperature, etc.
2. Secondary needs : Secondary needs are not natural but are learned by the
individual through his experience and interaction. Therefore, these are also
called learned or derived needs. Emergence of these needs depend on
learning. There may be different types of secondary needs
like need for power, achievement, státus, affiliation, etc
3. General needs : There are a number of needs which lie in between the primary
and secondary classifications. A need must not be learned but at the same
time, it is not completely physiological. There are certain such needs like need
for competence, curiosity, manipulation, affection, etc.
 Motivation Process
1. Unsatisfied needs and motives: It is the first process of motivation. This stage involves unsatisfied needs
and motives. Such unsatisfied needs can be activated by internal stimulus such as hunger and thirst.
They can also be activated by external stimulus such as advertisement and window display
2. Tension: this stage involves tension. Unsatisfied needs create tension in the individual. Such tension can
be physical, psychological, and sociological. In this situation, people try to develop objects that will
satisfy their needs.
3. Action to satisfy needs and motives: this stage involves action of people to satisfy needs and motives.
Such tension creates strong internal stimulus that calls for action. Individual engages in action to satisfy
needs and motives for tension reduction. For this purpose, alternatives are searches and choice is
made, the action can be hard work for earning more money
4. Goal accomplishment: This stage involves goal accomplishment. Action to satisfy needs and motives
accomplishes goals. It can be achieved through reward and punishment. When actions are carried out
as per the tensions, then people are rewarded others are punished. Ultimately goals are accomplished.
5. Feedback: this is the last stage for motivation. Feedback provides information for revision or
improvement or modification of needs as needed. Depending on how well the goal is accomplished
their needs and motives are modified. Drastic changes in environment necessitate the revision and
modification of needs
 Significance of Motivation
Motivation involves getting the members of the group to pull weight effectively, to
give their loyalty to the group, to carry out properly the purpose of the
organization. The following results may be expected if the employees are
properly motivated.
1. The workforce will be better satisfied if the management provides them with
opportunities to fulfill their physiological and psychological needs. The workers
will cooperate voluntarily with the management and will contribute their
maximum towards the goals of the enterprise.
2. Workers will tend to be as efficient as possible by improving upon their skills and
knowledge so that they are able to contribute to the progress of the
organization. This will also result in increased productivity.
3. The rates of labor’s turnover and absenteeism among the workers will be low.
4. There will be good human relations in the organization as friction among the
workers themselves and between the workers and the management will
decrease.
5. The number of complaints and grievances will come down. Accident will also be
low.
6. There will be increase in the quantity and quality of products. Wastage and scrap
will be less. Better quality of products will also increase the public image of the
Motivation

Extrinsic
Abilities Resources

Performance Reward

Role of
perception Intrinsic
Sense of
competence
Theories of Motivation
 Abraham Maslow,
Abraham Maslow, a well-known psychologist in a classic paper published in 1943, outlined
the elements of an overall theory of motivation.Maslow’s hierarchy of needs: According to
Maslow’s theory of needs, individual needs are arranged in a hierarchy. There are five
categories of needs a.
1. Physiological needs :are the physical requirements for human survival. If these
requirements are not met, the human body cannot function properly and will
ultimately fail. Physiological needs are thought to be the most important;
they should be met first. Air, water, and food are metabolic requirements for
survival in all animals, including humans. Clothing and shelter provide
necessary protection from the elements. While maintaining an adequate
birth rate shapes the intensity of the human sexual instinct, sexual
competition may also shape said instinct.
2. Safety needs: Once a person's physical safety needs are relatively satisfied,
their safety needs take precedence and dominate behavior. In the absence of
physical safety – due to war, natural disaster, family violence, childhood
abuse, etc. – people may (re-)experience post-traumatic stress disorder or
trans generational trauma. In the absence of economic safety – due to
economic crisis and lack of work opportunities – these safety needs manifest
themselves in ways such as a preference for job security, grievance
procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings
accounts, insurance policies, disability accommodations, etc. This level is
more likely to be found in children as they generally have a greater need to
feel safe.
3.Love and belongingness needs: Interpersonal and involves
feelings of belongingness. According to Maslow, humans
need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance among
their social groups, regardless whether these groups are
large or small. For example, some large social groups may
include clubs, co-workers, religious groups, professional
organizations, sports teams, and gangs. Some examples of
small social connections include family members, intimate
partners, mentors, colleagues, and confidants. Humans
need to love and be loved – both sexually and non-sexually
– by others. Many people become susceptible to
loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression in the
absence of this love or belonging element. This need for
belonging may overcome the physiological and security
needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure.
d. Self-Esteem: All humans have a need to feel respected; this includes the need to
have self-esteem and self-respect. Esteem presents the typical human desire to be
accepted and valued by others. People often engage in a profession or hobby to gain
recognition. These activities give the person a sense of contribution or value. Low
self-esteem or an inferiority complex may result from imbalances during this level in
the hierarchy. People with low self-esteem often need respect from others; they
may feel the need to seek fame or glory. However, fame or glory will not help the
person to build their self-esteem until they accept who they are internally.
Psychological imbalances such as depression can hinder the person from obtaining a
higher level of self-esteem or self-respect.
e. Self-actualization: "What a man can be, he must be."This quotation forms the basis
of the perceived need for self-actualization. This level of need refers to what a
person's full potential is and the realization of that potential. Maslow describes this
level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that
one can be. Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically. For
example, one individual may have the strong desire to become an ideal parent. In
another, the desire may be expressed athletically. For others, it may be expressed in
paintings, pictures, or inventions. As previously mentioned, Maslow believed that to
understand this level of need, the person must not only achieve the previous needs,
but master them
 Hertzberg Two-Factor theory
• Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model, or Two Factor Theory, argues that there are
two factors that an organization can adjust to influence motivation in the workplace.
• These factors are:
• Motivators: Which can encourage employees to work harder.
• Hygiene factors: These won’t encourage employees to work harder but they will
cause them to become unmotivated if they are not present.


• Motivators
(e.g. challenging work, recognition for one's achievement, responsibility, opportunity
to do something meaningful, involvement in decision making, sense of importance
to an organization) that give positive satisfaction, arising from intrinsic conditions
of the job itself, such as recognition, achievement, or personal growth,
• Achievement: A job must give an employee a sense of achievement. This will
provide a proud feeling of having done something difficult but worthwhile.
• Recognition: A job must provide an employee with praise and recognition of their
successes. This recognition should come from both their superiors and their peers.
• The work itself: The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide enough of a
challenge to keep employees motivated.
• Responsibility: Employees should “own” their work. They should hold themselves
responsible for this completion and not feel as though they are being
micromanaged.
• Advancement: Promotion opportunities should exist for the employee.
• Growth: The job should give employees the opportunity to learn new skills. This
can happen either on the job or through more formal training.
Hygiene factors
(e.g. status, job security, salary, fringe benefits, work conditions, good pay, paid insurance,
vacations) that do not give positive satisfaction or lead to higher motivation, though
dissatisfaction results from their absence. The term "hygiene" is used in the sense that these
are maintenance factors. These are extrinsic to the work itself, and include aspects such as
company policies, supervisory practices, or wages/salary. Herzberg often referred to hygiene
factors as "KITA" factors, which is an acronym for "kick in the ass", the process of providing
incentives or threat of punishment to make someone do something.
• Company policies: These should be fair and clear to every employee. They must also be
equivalent to those of competitors.
• Supervision: Supervision must be fair and appropriate. The employee should be given as
much autonomy as is reasonable.
• Relationships: There should be no tolerance for bullying or cliques. A healthy, amiable, and
appropriate relationship should exist between peers, superiors, and subordinates.
• Work conditions: Equipment and the working environment should be safe, fit for purpose,
and hygienic.
• Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. It should also be competitive with
other organizations in the same industry.
• Status: The organization should maintain the status of all employees within the organization.
Performing meaningful work can provide a sense of status.
• Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is secure and they are not under
the constant threat of being laid-off.
 McClelland’s Three-Needs Theory

Proposed by psychologist David McClelland, is a motivational model that attempts to

explain how the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation affect the actions of
people from a managerial context. This model was developed in the 1960s soon
after Maslow's hierarchy of needs in the 1940s. McClelland stated that we all have
these three types of motivation regardless of age, sex, race, or culture. The type of
motivation by which each individual is driven derives from their life experiences and
the opinions of their culture. This need theory is often taught in classes concerning
management or organizational behaviour.
1. Need for achievement (nAch): The drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of
standards.
2. Need for Power (nPow): The need to make others behave in a way that they would
not have behaved otherwise.
3. Need for Affiliation (n Aff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal
1. Need for achievement :They prefer working on tasks of moderate difficulty, prefer work
in which the results are based on their effort rather than on anything else, and prefer to
receive feedback on their work. Achievement based individuals tend to avoid both high-
risk and low-risk situations. Low-risk situations are seen as too easy to be valid and the
high-risk situations are seen as based more on the luck of the situation rather than the
achievements that individual made. This personality type is motivated by
accomplishment in the workplace and an employment hierarchy with promotional
positions.
2. Need for affiliation: People who have a need for affiliation prefer to spend time creating
and maintaining social relationships, enjoy being a part of groups, and have a desire to
feel loved and accepted. People in this group tend to adhere to the norms of the culture
in that workplace and typically do not change the norms of the workplace for fear of
rejection. This person favors collaboration over competition and does not like situations
with high risk or high uncertainty. People who have a need for affiliation work well in
areas based on social interactions like customer service or client interaction positions.
3. Need for power: People in this category enjoy work and place a high value on discipline.
The downside to this motivational type is that group goals can become zero-sum in
nature, that is, for one person to win, another must lose. However, this can be positively
applied to help accomplish group goals and to help others in the group feel competent
about their work. A person motivated by this need enjoys status recognition, winning
arguments, competition, and influencing others. With this motivational type come a
need for personal prestige, and a constant need for a better personal status.
 Victor Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Victor Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation is a process
theory of motivation. It says that an individual’s motivation is
affected by their expectations about the future.
• Specifically, Vroom says that an individual’s motivation is
affected by how much they value any reward associated with
an action (Valence), how much they believe that by putting
effort into something they will be able to generate good results
(Expectancy) and how much they believe that generating good
results will result in a reward (Instrumentality).
• It’s important to note that rewards could be intrinsic or
extrinsic. Extrinsic motivations are external things such as
money and promotion. Intrinsic motivations are internal things
such as a sense of fulfillment and achievement.
• Expectancy is the belief that increased effort will lead to increased performance i.e. if I work harder
then this will be better. This is affected by such things as:
Having the right resources available (e.g. raw materials, time)
Having the right skills to do the job
Having the necessary support to get the job done (e.g. supervisor support, or correct information on the
job)
• Instrumentality is the belief that if you perform well that a valued outcome will be received. The
degree to which a first level outcome will lead to the second level outcome. i.e. if I do a good job, there
is something in it for me. This is affected by such things as:
Clear understanding of the relationship between performance and outcomes – e.g. the rules of the reward
'game'
Trust in the people who will take the decisions on who gets what outcome
Transparency of the process that decides who gets what outcome
• Valence is the importance that the individual places upon the expected outcome. For the valence to
be positive, the person must prefer attaining the outcome to not attaining it. For example, if someone
is mainly motivated by money, he or she might not value offers of additional time off.
Porter-lawler Model of Motivation
Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler came up with a comprehensive
theory of motivation, combining the various aspects that we
have so far been discussing and using two additional variables in
their model.
(i) As mentioned above, it is a multi variate model. According to
this model, individual behaviour is determined by a combination
of factors in the individual and in the environment.
(ii) Individuals are assumed to be rational human beings who make
conscious decisions about their behaviour in the organisations.
(iii) Individuals have different needs, desires and goals.
(iv) On the basis of their expectations, individuals decide between
alternate behaviours and such decided behaviour will lead to a
desired outcome.
1. Effort:
Effort refers to the amount of energy which a person exerts on a job.
2. Value of Reward:
First of all people try to figure out whether the rewards that are likely to be received from doing a job will be attractive
to them. This is referred to as valence in Vroom’s theory. A person who is looking for more money, for example,
extra vacation time may not be an attractive reward. If the reward to be obtained is attractive or valent then the
individual will put extra efforts to perform the job. otherwise he will lower his effort.
3. Perceived Effort Reward Probability:
In addition, before people put forth any effort, they will also try to assess the probability of a certain level of effort
leading to a desired level of performance and the possibility of that performance leading to certain kinds of rewards.
Based on the valence of the reward and the effort reward probability, people can decide to put in certain level of
work effort.
4. Performance:
Effort leads to performance. The expected level of performance will depend upon the amount of effort, the abilities and
traits of the individual and his role perceptions. Abilities include knowledge, skills and intellectual capacity to
perform the job. Traits which are important for many jobs are endurance, pre-servance, and goal directedness. Thus,
abilities and traits will moderate the effort- performance relationship.
In addition, people performing the jobs should have accurate role perception which refers to the wav in which people
define for the jobs. People may perceive their roles differently. Only those, who perceive their roles as is defined by
the organization, will be able to perform well when they put forth the requisite effort
5. Rewards:
Performance leads to certain outcomes in the shape of two types of rewards namely extrinsic rewards and intrinsic
rewards. Extrinsic rewards are the external rewards given by others in the organization in the form of money,
recognition or praise. Intrinsic rewards are internal feelings of job sell esteem and sense of competence that
individuals feel when they do a good job.
6. Satisfaction:
Satisfaction will result from both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. However, for being satisfied, an individual will compare
his actual rewards with the perceived rewards if actual rewards meet or exceed perceived equitable rewards, the
individual will feel satisfied and if these are less than the equitable rewards, the individual will feel dissatisfied
 Alderfer's ERG theory
Alderfer's ERG theory from 1969 condenses Maslow's five human needs into three
categories: Existence, Relatedness and Growth. Alderfer's ERG theory suggests
that there are three groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G)—hence the acronym ERG. These groups align with Maslow's levels of
physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.
• Existence Needs
Include all material and physiological desires (e.g., food,
water, air, clothing, safety, physical love and affection).
Maslow's first two levels.
• Relatedness Needs
Encompass social and external esteem; relationships with
significant others like family, friends, co-workers and
employers . This also means to be recognized and feel secure
as part of a group or family. Maslow's third and fourth levels.
• Growth Needs
Internal esteem and self actualization; these impel a person
to make creative or productive effects on himself and the
environment (e.g., to progress toward one's ideal self).
Maslow's fourth and fifth levels. This includes desires to be
creative and productive, and to complete meaningful tasks.
 Equity Theory of Motivation
J. Stacy Adams developed equity theory. In the equity
theory of motivation, employee’s motivation depends
on their perception of how fair is the compensation
and treatment for their work input. Equity Theory
states that the employees perceive what they get from
a job situation (Outcomes) about what they put into it(
Inputs) and then compare their Inputs- Outcomes
ratio with the Inputs- Outcomes ratios of others.
The equity theory of motivation describes the
relationship between the employee’s perception of
how fairly is he being treated and how hard he is
motivated to work.
This theory show-
• Inputs: Inputs include all the rich and diverse elements that employees
believe they bring or contribute to the job – their Ability, education,
experience, effort, loyalty, commitment, training.
• Outcomes: Outcomes are rewards they perceive they get from their jobs
and employers’ outcomes include- direct pay and bonuses,
Recognition,fringe benefit, job security, social rewards and psychological.
• Over-rewarded: if employees fell over-rewarded equity theory predicts
then they will feel an imbalance in their relationship with their employee
and seek to restore that balance.
O/I a > O/I b Over-rewarded (Equity Tension)
• Equity: if employees perceive equity then they will be motivated to
continue to contribute act about the same level.
O/I a = O/I b (Equity)

• Unrewarded: unrewarded who feel they have been unrewarded and seek
to reduce their feeling inequity through the same types of strategies but
the same of this specific action is now reverse.
O/I a < O/I b Under-rewarded (Equity Tension)
 Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation

The Carrot and Stick Approach of Motivation is a traditional motivation theory that asserts, in motivating people
to elicit desired behaviors, sometimes the Rewards are given in the form of money, promotion, and any
other financial or non-financial benefits and sometimes the Punishments are exerted to push an individual
towards the desired behavior.
The Carrot and Stick approach of motivation is based on the Principles of reinforcement and is given by a
philosopher Jeremy Bentham, during the industrial revolution. This theory is derived from the old
story of a donkey, the best way to move him is to put a carrot in front of him and jab him with a stick from
behind. The carrot is a reward for moving while the stick is the punishment for not moving and hence making
him move forcefully.
• Thus, an individual is given carrot i.e. reward when he performs efficiently and is jabbed with a stick or is
given a punishment in case of non-performance. While giving the punishments, the following points need to
be taken care of:
• Punishment is said to be effective in modifying the behavior if an individual selects a desirable alternative
behavior.
• If the above condition does not occur the behavior will be temporarily suppressed and may reappear after
the punishment is over.
• The punishment is more effective when given at the time the undesirable behavior is actually performed.
• The management should make sure, that punishment is properly administered and does not become a
reward for the undesirable behavior.
• Thus, carrot and stick approach of motivation should be applied carefully such that, both have the positive
motivational effect on the people in the organization.