Time Study

CHAPTER 6
Cycle time analysis of manual
work (Review)
• Normal Time: The time to complete a task when working at normal
performance
• Actual time to perform the cycle depends on worker performance
Tc = Tn / Pw
Tc = cycle time, Tn = normal time, Pw = worker performance or pace
• Standard Time: Defined as the normal time but with an allowance
added into account for losses due to personal time, fatigue, and delays
Tstd = Tn (1 + Apfd)
Tstd = standard time, Tn = normal time, Apfd = PFD allowance factor
• Now we are confident to say that a worker working at 100%
performance during 8 hours can accomplish a task of 8 hour standard
time
Personal time, Fatigue, Delay
(PFD) Allowance
• To account for the delays and rest breaks, an allowance is added to the normal time
in order to determine allowed time for the worker to perform the task throughout a
shift
• Personal time (P): Bathroom breaks.
• Fatigue (F): Rest breaks are intended to deal with fatigue
• Delays (D): Interruptions, equipment breakdowns
• Periodic rest breaks are allowed during the work shift
• Lunch breaks (1/2 or 1 hour); usually not counted as part of work shifts
• Shorter rest beraks (15 mins); usually counted as part of work shifts
• Of course the interruptions and delays also occur during the shift
• Machine breakdowns
• Receiving instructions from the foreman
• Bathroom/toilette breaks etc
 Irregular Work Elements
• Elements that are performed with a frequency of less than once per cycle
Examples: Changing a tool; Exchanging parts when containers become full
• Irregular elements are prorated into the regular cycle according to their frequency
Standard Hours and Worker Efficiency
• Two (three) common measures of worker productivity used in industry
• Standard hours – represents the amount of work accomplished during a given
period (shift, week)
• Quantity of work units (in terms of time) produced
Hstd = Q Tstd
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Q = quantity of work units completed during the period, pc
Tstd =standard time per work unit, hr/pc
 Worker efficiency – work accomplished during the shift expressed as a
proportion of shift hours
Ew = Hstd / Hsh
Hstd =standard hours accomplished, hr
Ew =worker efficiency, normally expressed as a percentage, hr
Hsh =number of shift hours, hr
• EXAMPLE
• The normal time to perform the regular work cycle is 3.23 min. In
addition, an irregular work element with a normal time = 1.25 min is
performed every 5 cycles. The PFD allowance factor is 15%. Determine
(a) the standard time
(b) the number of work units produced during an 8-hr shift if the worker's
pace is consistent with standard performance.
(a) Normal time Tn = 3.23 + 1.25/5 = 3.48 min
Standard time Tstd = 3.48 (1 + 0.15) = 4.00 min
(b) Number of work units produced during an 8-hr shift
Qstd = 8.0(60)/4.00 = 120 work units
• Normal time of a task involves normal times for regular and irregular
work elements
Determining Lost Time due to the Allowance Factor
• Given: An allowance factor of 15% is used. Determine the aanticipated
amount of time lost per 8-hour shift.
• Solution:
8.0 hour =(actual time worked) (1+0.15)
Actual time worked = 8/ 1.15 = 6.956 hr
Time lost = 8.0 – 6.956 = 1.044 hr
Production rate when worker performance exceeds 100%
• Given: Tsd=4.00 min. The worker’s average performance during an 8-
hour shift is 125% and the hours actually worked is 6.956 hr (which
corresponds to the 15% allowance factor). Determine daily
production rate. Solution
• Based on normal time Tn=3.48 min, the actual cycle time with a
worker performance of 125%, Tc=3.48 / 1.25 = 2.78 min.
• Assuming one work unit is produced each cycle, the corresponding
daily production rate, Rp=6.956(60)/2.78=150 work units
OR
• 125% of 120 units (we know that from Exercise 2.3.b) at 100%
performance = 150 units
Standard hours and worker efficiency
• Given: The worker performance of 125% in the previous example. Determine:
(a) number of standard hours produced
(b) worker efficiency
• Solution:
(a) Hstd=150(4 min)=600 min= 10.0 hr (Hstd = Q Tstd)
(b) Ew = 10hr / 8 hr =125 % (Ew = Hstd / Hsh)
Standard hours and worker efficiency as affected by hours actually worked
• Given: The worker performance of 125%, actual hours worked is 7.42 hr. Determine:
(a) number of pieces produced,
(b) number of standard hours accomplished,
(c) the worker’s efficiency
• Solution:
(a) Tc= 2.78 (prev. example), Q=7.42(60)/2.78=160 units
(b) Hstd=160(4 min)=640 min= 10.67 hr
(c) Ew = 10.67hr / 8 hr =133.3 %
 Introduction to Work
Measurement
• Work measurement – evaluation of a task in terms of the time that
should be allowed by an average worker to perform the task.
• Focus on human work
• standard time (allowed time) – amount of time that should be
allowed for an average worker to process one work unit using the
standard method and working at normal pace
• Time study – all the ways in which time is analyzed in work situations
• How much time it should take to accomplish a given task
• Both terms (work measurement and time study) can be used
interchangeably
When Are Time Standards Beneficial?

Characteristics of industrial situations in which time standards would be

beneficial
• Low productivity: significant opportunities for improvement
• Repeat orders: once the time standard is set for the first, it can be
used for successive ones
• Long production runs: reduced average cost of work measurement
• Repetitive work cycles: work measurement can be justified more
readily
• Short cycle times requires less time to set standards
Functions of Time Standards
• They define a “fair day’s work”
• They provide a means to convert workload into staffing and
equipment needs
• They allow alternative methods to be compared objectively
• They provide a basis for wage incentives and evaluation of worker
performance
• They provide time data for:
• Production planning and scheduling
• Cost estimating
• Material requirements planning
Methods to Determine Time
Standards

• Vary in terms of
• accuracy and reliability of the values derived from the method
• amount of time required to apply the corresponding method
• Estimation
• Judgment of a person who is familiar with the job
• Subjective
• Least accurate method
• Historical records
• Records on the actual times and production quantities for previous
identical or similar job orders - “Timecard”s
• Average time per part
• Improvement overestimates
• Limitation: No indication of efficiency measures
• Work measurement techniques
• Time consuming
• More accurate than estimation and historical records
Work Measurement Techniques
1. Direct time study (DTS)
2. Predetermined motion time system (PMTS)
3. Standard data systems (SDS)
• These 3 are known as engineered standards
• Some effort has been made to determine the best method to
accomplish a given task
4. Work sampling
• Determine proportions of time spent in work activities using
randomized observations
Task Hierarchy & Work Measurement

Work measurement techniques measure

work at different levels of this hierarchy
 Direct Time Study
• Direct observation of a task using a stopwatch to record the time taken
to accomplish a task.
• The task is usually divided into work elements and each work element
is timed seperately.
• During the observation, the analyst evaluates the worker’s pace -
performance rating
• Normal time
Tn=Tobs(PR)
where Tn= normal time, min; Tobs=observed time, min;
PR=performance rating of the worker’s pace
• Standard time
Tstd=Tn(1+Apfd)
Predetermined Motion Time Systems
• A database of normal times of basic motion elements
(therbligs) such as reach, grasp, move etc.
• Conditions under which the motion elements (work
variables) are performed are important.
• The analyst list all of the basic motion elements that
comprise the task; then normal times for basic motion
elements are summed up to obtain the normal time for the
task
• Advantages:
• No need for performance rating
• Can be applied before production starts
Standard Data Systems
• A compilation of normal time values for work elements used
in the tasks performed in facility
• Used to establish time standards for tasks composed of work
elements similar to those in the database
• Source of data: direct time study, PMTS, work sampling,
historical data
• Effect of work variables should be included
• Tables
• Charts
• Mathematical equations
Work Sampling
• A random sampling technique to estimate the proportions of time
spent in different activities
• Identify activities clearly. Example: machine setup, production,
idleness
• Multiple subjects (entities) can be included
• Observations
• Random: minimize bias
• Large in number: to achieve statistical accuracy
• Objectives:
• Setting time standards: Statistical estimation error is high 
• Estimating resource utilization (different from other techniques) 
• Determining an allowance factors (different from other
techniques) 
Prerequisites for Valid Time Standards

Time to perform a task depends on

• worker (gender, strength etc.),
• worker’s pace,
• method used,
• work unit
Factors that must be standardized before a time standard can be set (except for the
worker)
Average Worker
• A worker who
• is representative of the persons who usually perform tasks similar to the task
being measured.
• if the work is performed mostly by men (women), then the average
worker is male (female)
• have learned the task, practiced and proficient at it
• is capable of performing the task consistently throughout the shift
Standard (Normal) Performance
• A pace of working that can be maintained by an average worker throughout an
entire work shift without harmful effects on the worker’s health or physical well-
being
• The work shift includes periodic rest breaks and occasional interruptions are
experienced by the worker (except for lunch breaks)
Distribution of Worker Performance

• Variations among workers →performance variations

• Worker performance is expressed in terms of daily output
• Standard performance is commonly defined to be a pace that can be
readily attained by the majority of workers (in stead of using
allowances)
• Companies want most workers to be able to achieve the standard
performance easily.
• A typical policy is to define standard performance so that an
average worker is able to work at a pace that is 130% of that pace
• Thus, most workers are able to easily achieve standard
performance
• Normal time: Time it takes to perform a task under the normal
(standard) (100%) performance
• Normal time does not include allowances for time losses
• Standard time: Normal time + allowance
Normal time(1 + Apfd)
 Standard Method
• Determining the optimum method for processing a work unit
• “One best method”: the safest, quickest, most productive, and least
stressful to the worker
• Must include all of the details on how the task is performed,
including:
• Procedure - hand and body motions
• Tools
• Equipment
• Workplace layout (what are the locations of the parts, tools)
• Irregular work
• Working conditions (is the work performed outside or inside)
• Setup
Standard Work Units
• The time needed to process the work unit depends on its starting
condition
• Therefore, this condition must be specified by engineering
documents
• If the actual condition deviates from the specification, then extra
time may be required to accomplish the task
• Exactly what changes are made in the work unit by the task?
• What is the final state of the completed work unit?
• Service work: more difficult to define
Allowances in Time Standards

• Normal time is adjusted by an allowance factor Apfd to obtain the

standard time
• Purpose of allowance factor is to compensate for lost time due to
work interruptions and other reasons
• Standard time:
Tstd = Tn(1 + Apfd)
where pfd = personal time, fatigue, and delays
 Reasons for Lost Time at Work
Work-related interruptions Non-work-related interruptions
• Machine breakdowns • Personal needs (e.g., restroom
• Waiting for materials or parts breaks)
• Receiving instructions from • Talking to co-workers about
foreman matters unrelated to work
• Talking to co-workers about • Lunch break (not included in Apfd)
work-related matters • Smoke break
• Rest breaks for fatigue • Beverage break
• Cleaning up at end of shift • Personal telephone call
 PFD Allowance
• Personal time
• Rest room breaks, phone calls, water fountain stops, cigarette breaks (5%
typical)
• For example: A larger value will be approporiate if the work environment is hot
• Fatigue
• Rest allowance to overcome fatigue due to work-related stresses and conditions
(5% or more)- refer to Chapter 23
• For example: If the work is physiologically very demanding, then relaxation time
should be allowed periodically for the body to recover (in this case use 20%
allowance
• Delays
• Random, unavoidable interruptions
• Machine breakdowns, foreman instructions (5% typical)
• Usually management is responsible for these delays.
• Sudden urge for a cigarette break? Is it personal or delay?
• Do you know how to measure allowances?
There are other reasons for adding allowances, which are not
as common as PFD allowances. They are applied in addition
to Apfd
• Contingency Allowance
• Additional allowance due to a problem with the task (e.g., raw
material problem ) - not greater than 5%
• Temporary basis – after solving the underlying problem, it will
disappear
• Policy allowance: They are based on company policy
• Machine allowance (set by company policy as a part of the wage
incentives.)
• Training allowance – for teaching new workers
• Learning allowance – learning a new task
Contingency Allowances

Problem area Problems and examples

Materials or Starting materials or parts are out of specification, and extra time is
parts needed to correct the nonconformance (e.g., oversized casting that
requires an extra machining pass or slower feed rate).
Process Manufacturing process is not in statistical control (Section 10.2),
and additional time is required to inspect every piece rather than
inspect on a sampling basis.
Equipment Equipment is malfunctioning or breaking down more frequently
than what is provided by the unavoidable delay factor, and
additional time is needed to compensate the worker to make
adjustments, lubricate the machine more frequently, or other extra
task(s) not included in the standard time.
Policy Allowances
• To cover special work situations that are usually associated with a wage
incentive system.
• Example: Machine allowance – provides an opportunity of the worker to
maintain a high rate of earnings even though (s)he has control over only a
portion of the cycle.
Tstd = Tnw (1 + Apfd) + Tm (1 + Am)
• Example: Use of machine allowance in a wage incentive plan
• A wage incentive plan pays workers a daily wage at a rate of $15/hr
multiplied by the number of standard hours accomplished during the shift.
Tnw =1 min, Tm =3 min, Apfd =15%. Workers’ work elements are external.
Determine the standard time for
a) Am=0,
b) Am=30%.
c) What does a worker earn for the day under each Am (policy!) if (s)he
produces 115 parts a day?
Solution
a) Tstd = 1 (1 + .15) + 3 (1 + 0)=4.15 min
b)Tstd = 1 (1 + .15) + 3 (1 + 0.30)=5.05 min
)c) Hstd under
a) Hstd=115(4.15)/60=7.95 hr
b) Hstd=115(5.05)/60=9.68 hr
The worker is paid under
c) 15(7.95)=$119.25
d) 15(119.25)=$145.19
 Measurement
• A procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared to a known
standard, using an accepted and consistent system of units
• Important attributes of a measurement system:
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Speed of response
• Work measurement is a measurement process
• Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy
• Degree to which the measured value agrees with the true value of the quality
of interest
• Freedom from systematic errors, which are positive or negative deviations
from the true value that are consistent from measurement to measurement
• Precision
• Repeatability of the measurement system
• High precision means random errors are small, where errors are assumed to
follow a normal distribution
• Plus or minus three standard deviations often used as a benchmark: [m-3s,m-
3s]

High accuracy Low accuracy High accuracy

Low precision High precision High precision
• Accuracy is concerned with closeness to the true value
• But what is the true value of a task time?
• Measurement is a procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared
with a known standard
• But the known standard in work measurement is the definition of
standard performance used by the company
• The standard is not based on time
• Precision is concerned with the expected variability within a single time
study
• Precision of a time standard is determined at a certain reliability or
confidence level
• For example, the standard time for a task is 4.00 min, and we are 95%
confident that the actual time is within 5% of that time
• 95 out of 100 time studies performed on the task, the resulting
standard time values lie between 3.80 min and 4.20 min
Relative Accuracy of Time Standards
Relative Application Speed