CS589-04 Digital Image Processing

Lecture 1
Introduction & Fundamentals

Spring 2008
 Introduction to the course
► http://www.cs.nmt.edu/~ip

► Office Hours:
Wednesday 9-11 AM, Cramer 231A
or appointment by email @
[email protected] or [email protected]

► Textbooks
Weeks 1 & 2 2
 Introduction to the course
► Grading
 Article Reading and Presentation: 15%
 Homework: 20%
 Exam: 15%
 Project: 50%
 Total: 100%
 Extra Credits: 50%. If the method and
experimental results of your project achieve the
state of the art, you will earn the extra 50%
credits.
Weeks 1 & 2 3
 Introduction to the course
► Article Reading and Project
 Medical image analysis (MRI/PET/CT/X-ray tumor
detection/classification)
 Face, fingerprint, and other object recognition
 Image and/or video compression
 Image segmentation and/or denoising
 Digital image/video watermarking/steganography
and detection
 Whatever you’re interested …

Weeks 1 & 2 4
 Introduction to the course
► Evaluation of article reading and project
 Report
 Article reading
— Submit a survey of the articles you read and the list of
the articles
 Project

— Submit an article including introduction, methods,

experiments, results, and conclusions
— Submit the project code, the readme document, and
some testing samples (images, videos, etc.) for validation
 Presentation

Weeks 1 & 2 5
 Journals & Conferences
in Image Processing
► Journals:
— IEEE T IMAGE PROCESSING
— IEEE T MEDICAL IMAGING
— INTL J COMP. VISION
— IEEE T PATTERN ANALYSIS MACHINE INTELLIGENCE
— PATTERN RECOGNITION
— COMP. VISION AND IMAGE UNDERSTANDING
— IMAGE AND VISION COMPUTING
… …
► Conferences:
— CVPR: Comp. Vision and Pattern Recognition
— ICCV: Intl Conf on Computer Vision
— ACM Multimedia
— ICIP
— SPIE
— ECCV: European Conf on Computer Vision
— CAIP: Intl Conf on Comp. Analysis of Images and Patterns
… …

Weeks 1 & 2 6
 Introduction
► What is Digital Image Processing?
Digital Image
— a two-dimensional function f ( x, y )
x and y are spatial coordinates
The amplitude of f is called intensity or gray level at the point (x, y)

Digital Image Processing

— process digital images by means of computer, it covers low-, mid-, and
high-level processes
low-level: inputs and outputs are images
mid-level: outputs are attributes extracted from input images
high-level: an ensemble of recognition of individual objects

Pixel
— the elements of a digital image

Weeks 1 & 2 7
 Origins of Digital Image
Processing

Sent by submarine
cable between London
and New York, the
transportation time
was reduced to less
than three hours from
Weeks 1 & 2 8
more than a week
 Origins of Digital Image
Processing

Weeks 1 & 2 9
 Sources for Images
► Electromagnetic (EM) energy spectrum
► Acoustic
► Ultrasonic
► Electronic
► Synthetic images produced by computer

Weeks 1 & 2 10
 Electromagnetic (EM) energy
spectrum

Major uses
Gamma-ray imaging: nuclear medicine and astronomical observations
X-rays: medical diagnostics, industry, and astronomy, etc.
Ultraviolet: lithography, industrial inspection, microscopy, lasers, biological imaging,
and astronomical observations
Visible and infrared bands: light microscopy, astronomy, remote sensing, industry,
and law enforcement
Microwave band: radar
Radio band: medicine (such as MRI) and astronomy

Weeks 1 & 2 11
 Examples: Gama-Ray Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 12
 Examples: X-Ray Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 13
 Examples: Ultraviolet Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 14
 Examples: Light Microscopy Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 15
Examples: Visual and Infrared Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 16
Examples: Visual and Infrared Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 17
 Examples: Infrared Satellite Imaging

2003
USA 1993
Weeks 1 & 2 18
 Examples: Infrared Satellite Imaging

Weeks 1 & 2 19
Examples: Automated Visual Inspection

Weeks 1 & 2 20
 Examples: Automated Visual Inspection

Results of
automated
reading of the
plate content
by the system

The area in
which the
imaging
system
detected the
plate
Weeks 1 & 2 21
 Example of Radar Image

Weeks 1 & 2 22
 Examples: MRI (Radio Band)

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 Examples: Ultrasound Imaging

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 Fundamental Steps in DIP
Extracting
image
components

Improving
the Partition an image
appearance into its constituent
parts or objects

Result is
more Represent image for
suitable than computer
the original processing

Weeks 1 & 2 25
 Light and EM Spectrum

c  E h , h : Planck's constant.

Weeks 1 & 2 26
 Light and EM Spectrum

► The colors that humans perceive in an

object are determined by the nature of the
light reflected from the object.

e.g. green objects reflect light with wavelengths

primarily in the 500 to 570 nm range while
absorbing most of the energy at other wavelength

Weeks 1 & 2 27
 Light and EM Spectrum
► Monochromatic light: void of color
Intensity is the only attribute, from black to white
Monochromatic images are referred to as gray-scale
images

► Chromatic light bands: 0.43 to 0.79 um

The quality of a chromatic light source:
Radiance: total amount of energy
Luminance (lm): the amount of energy an observer
perceives from a light source
Brightness: a subjective descriptor of light perception that is
impossible to measure. It embodies the achromatic notion of
intensity and one of the key factors in describing color
sensation.

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 Image Acquisition

Transform
illumination
energy into
digital
images

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Image Acquisition Using a Single Sensor

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 Image Acquisition Using Sensor Strips

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 Image Acquisition Process

Weeks 1 & 2 32
 A Simple Image Formation Model

f ( x, y ) i ( x, y )r ( x, y )

f ( x, y ) : intensity at the point (x, y)

i ( x, y ) : illumination at the point (x, y)
(the amount of source illumination incident on the scene)
r ( x, y ) : reflectance/transmissivity at the point (x, y )
(the amount of illumination reflected/transmitted by the object)
where 0 < i( x, y ) <  and 0 < r ( x, y ) < 1

Weeks 1 & 2 33
 Some Typical Ranges of illumination

► Illumination
Lumen — A unit of light flow or luminous flux
Lumen per square meter (lm/m 2) — The metric unit of
measure for illuminance of a surface

 On a clear day, the sun may produce in excess of 90,000 lm/m 2 of

illumination on the surface of the Earth

 On a cloudy day, the sun may produce less than 10,000 lm/m 2 of
illumination on the surface of the Earth

 On a clear evening, the moon yields about 0.1 lm/m2 of illumination

 The typical illumination level in a commercial office is about 1000

lm/m2
Weeks 1 & 2 34
 Some Typical Ranges of Reflectance

► Reflectance

 0.01 for black velvet

 0.65 for stainless steel

 0.80 for flat-white wall paint

 0.90 for silver-plated metal

 0.93 for snow

Weeks 1 & 2 35
 Image Sampling and Quantization

Digitizing
the
coordinate
values Digitizing
the
amplitude
values

Weeks 1 & 2 36
 Image Sampling and Quantization

Weeks 1 & 2 37
 Representing Digital Images

Weeks 1 & 2 38
 Representing Digital Images

► Therepresentation of an M×N
numerical array as

 f (0, 0) f (0,1) ... f (0, N  1) 

 f (1, 0) f (1,1) ... f (1, N  1) 
f ( x , y ) 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M  1, 0) f ( M  1,1) ... f ( M  1, N  1) 

Weeks 1 & 2 39
 Representing Digital Images

► Therepresentation of an M×N
numerical array as

 a0,0 a0,1 ... a0, N  1 

 a a1,1 ... a1, N  1  
A  1,0

 ... ... ... ... 

 
 aM  1,0 aM  1,1 ... aM  1, N  1 

Weeks 1 & 2 40
 Representing Digital Images

► Therepresentation of an M×N
numerical array in MATLAB

 f (1,1) f (1, 2) ... f (1, N ) 

 f (2,1) f (2, 2) ... f (2, N ) 
f ( x , y ) 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
 f ( M ,1) f ( M , 2) ... f (M , N )

Weeks 1 & 2 41
 Representing Digital Images

► Discrete intensity interval [0, L-1], L=2k

► The number b of bits required to store a M

× N digitized image

b=M×N×k

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 Representing Digital Images

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 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

► Spatial resolution
— A measure of the smallest discernible detail in an
image
— stated with line pairs per unit distance, dots
(pixels) per unit distance, dots per inch (dpi)

► Intensity resolution
— The smallest discernible change in intensity level
— stated with 8 bits, 12 bits, 16 bits, etc.

Weeks 1 & 2 44
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 45
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 46
 Spatial and Intensity Resolution

Weeks 1 & 2 47
 Image Interpolation

► Interpolation — Process of using known

data to estimate unknown values
e.g., zooming, shrinking, rotating, and geometric correction

► Interpolation (sometimes called

resampling) — an imaging method to increase
(or decrease) the number of pixels in a digital
image.
Some digital cameras use interpolation to produce a larger
image than the sensor captured or to create digital zoom

http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/key=interpolation

Weeks 1 & 2 48
 Image Interpolation:
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation

f1(x2,y2) = f(x1,y1)
f(round(x2),
round(y2))
=f(x1,y1)

f1(x3,y3) =
f(round(x3),
round(y3))
=f(x1,y1)
Weeks 1 & 2 49
 Image Interpolation:
Bilinear Interpolation

(x,y)

f 2 ( x, y )
(1  a )(1  b) f (l , k )  a (1  b) f (l  1, k )
(1  a )b f (l , k  1)  a b f (l  1, k  1)
l  floor ( x), k  floor ( y ), a x  l , b  y  k .
Weeks 1 & 2 50
 Image Interpolation:
Bicubic Interpolation
► The intensity value assigned to point (x,y) is
obtained by the following equation
3 3
f 3 ( x, y )   aij x y i j

i 0 j 0

► The sixteen coefficients are determined by using

the sixteen nearest neighbors.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicubic_interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

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 Examples: Interpolation

Weeks 1 & 2 56
 Examples: Interpolation

Weeks 1 & 2 57
 Examples: Interpolation

Weeks 1 & 2 58
 Examples: Interpolation

Weeks 1 & 2 59
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighborhood

► Adjacency

► Connectivity

► Paths

► Regions and boundaries

Weeks 1 & 2 60
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Neighbors of a pixel p at coordinates (x,y)

 4-neighbors of p, denoted by N4(p):

(x-1, y), (x+1, y), (x,y-1), and (x, y+1).

 4 diagonal neighbors of p, denoted by ND(p):

(x-1, y-1), (x+1, y+1), (x+1,y-1), and (x-1, y+1).

 8 neighbors of p, denoted N8(p)

N8(p) = N4(p) U ND(p)

Weeks 1 & 2 61
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 4-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from

V are 4-adjacent if q is in the set N4(p).

 8-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from

V are 8-adjacent if q is in the set N8(p).

Weeks 1 & 2 62
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Adjacency
Let V be the set of intensity values

 m-adjacency: Two pixels p and q with values from

V are m-adjacent if

(i) q is in the set N4(p), or

(ii) q is in the set ND(p) and the set N4(p) ∩ N4(p) has no pixels
whose values are from V.

Weeks 1 & 2 63
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Path
 A (digital) path (or curve) from pixel p with coordinates (x0, y0)
to pixel q with coordinates (xn, yn) is a sequence of distinct
pixels with coordinates

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

Where (xi, yi) and (xi-1, yi-1) are adjacent for 1 ≤ i ≤ n.

 Here n is the length of the path.

 If (x0, y0) = (xn, yn), the path is closed path.

 We can define 4-, 8-, and m-paths based on the type of

adjacency used.
Weeks 1 & 2 64
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2
0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1

Weeks 1 & 2 65
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2
0
8-adjacent
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1

Weeks 1 & 2 66
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
1
0 2 0 0 2 0 0 2
0 m-adjacent
8-adjacent
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
1

Weeks 1 & 2 67
 Examples: Adjacency and Path
V = {1, 2}

0 1 1
1,1 1,2 1,3 0 1 1 0 1
1
0 2 0
2,1 2,2 2,3 0 2 0 0 2
0 m-adjacent
8-adjacent
0 0 1
3,1 3,2 3,3 0 0 1 0 0
The 8-path from (1,3) to (3,3): The m-path from (1,3) to (3,3):
1
(i) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3) (1,3), (1,2), (2,2), (3,3)
(ii) (1,3), (2,2), (3,3)

Weeks 1 & 2 68
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Connected in S
Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image. Two
pixels p with coordinates (x0, y0) and q with
coordinates (xn, yn) are said to be connected in S
if there exists a path

(x0, y0), (x1, y1), …, (xn, yn)

i, 0 i n, ( xi , yi )  S
Where

Weeks 1 & 2 69
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

Let S represent a subset of pixels in an image

► For every pixel p in S, the set of pixels in S that are connected

to p is called a connected component of S.

► If S has only one connected component, then S is called

Connected Set.

► We call R a region of the image if R is a connected set

► Two regions, Ri and Rj are said to be adjacent if their union

forms a connected set.
► Regions that are not to be adjacent are said to be disjoint.

Weeks 1 & 2 70
 Basic Relationships Between Pixels

► Boundary (or border)

 The boundary of the region R is the set of pixels in the region

that have one or more neighbors that are not in R.
 If R happens to be an entire image, then its boundary is defined
as the set of pixels in the first and last rows and columns of the
image.

► Foreground and background

 An image contains K disjoint regions, R k, k = 1, 2, …, K. Let Ru

denote the union of all the K regions, and let (R u)c denote its
complement.
All the points in Ru is called foreground;
All the points in (Ru)c is called background.
Weeks 1 & 2 71
 Question 1

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are

the two regions (of 1s) adjacent? (if 8-
adjacency is used)

Region 1
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 0 Region 2

0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 72
 Question 2

► In the following arrangement of pixels, are

the two parts (of 1s) adjacent? (if 4-adjacency
is used)

Part 1
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 0 Part 2

0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 73
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the
two regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency
is used)

Region 1
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 0 Region 2

0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 74
► In the following arrangement of pixels, the
two regions (of 1s) are disjoint (if 4-adjacency
is used)

foregroun
1 1 1 d
1 0 1
0 1 0 background

0 0 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

Weeks 1 & 2 75
 Question 3

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the

circled point is part of the boundary of the 1-
valued pixels if 8-adjacency is used, true or
false?

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
Weeks 1 & 2 76
 Question 4

► In the following arrangement of pixels, the

circled point is part of the boundary of the 1-
valued pixels if 4-adjacency is used, true or
false?

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0
Weeks 1 & 2 77
 Distance Measures

► Given pixels p, q and z with coordinates (x, y),

(s, t), (u, v) respectively, the distance function
D has following properties:

a. D(p, q) ≥ 0 [D(p, q) = 0, iff p = q]

b. D(p, q) = D(q, p)

c. D(p, z) ≤ D(p, q) + D(q, z)

Weeks 1 & 2 78
 Distance Measures

The following are the different Distance measures:

a. Euclidean Distance :
De(p, q) = [(x-s)2 + (y-t)2]1/2

b. City Block Distance:

D4(p, q) = |x-s| + |y-t|

c. Chess Board Distance:

D8(p, q) = max(|x-s|, |y-t|)

Weeks 1 & 2 79
 Question 5

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s

the value of the chessboard distance between
the circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 80
 Question 6

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s

the value of the city-block distance between
the circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 81
 Question 7

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s

the value of the length of the m-path between
the circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 82
 Question 8

► In the following arrangement of pixels, what’s

the value of the length of the m-path between
the circled two points?

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Weeks 1 & 2 83
 Introduction to Mathematical Operations
in DIP
► Array vs. Matrix
Operation

 a11 a12   b11 b12 

A   B 
Array  a21 a22  b b 
product  21 22 
operator
 a11b11 a12b12  Array
A .* B 
 a21b21 a22b22  product
Matrix
product
operator
 a11b11  a12b21 a11b12  a12b22  Matrix
A * B   product
a b  a b a b 
 21 11 22 21 21 12 22 22 a b

Weeks 1 & 2 84
Introduction to Mathematical Operations
in DIP
► Linear vs. Nonlinear Operation

H  f ( x, y )   g ( x, y )
H  ai f i ( x, y )  a j f j ( x, y ) 
Additivity
H  ai f i ( x, y )   H  a j f j ( x, y ) 
ai H  f i ( x, y )   a j H  f j ( x, y )  Homogeneit
y
ai gi ( x, y )  a j g j ( x, y )
H is said to be a linear operator;
H is said to be a nonlinear operator if it does not meet
the above qualification.
Weeks 1 & 2 85
 Arithmetic Operations

► Arithmetic operations between images are array

operations. The four arithmetic operations are
denoted as

s(x,y) = f(x,y) + g(x,y)

d(x,y) = f(x,y) – g(x,y)
p(x,y) = f(x,y) × g(x,y)
v(x,y) = f(x,y) ÷ g(x,y)

Weeks 1 & 2 86
 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise
Reduction

Noiseless image: f(x,y)

Noise: n(x,y) (at every pair of coordinates (x,y), the noise is
uncorrelated and has zero average value)
Corrupted image: g(x,y)
g(x,y) = f(x,y) + n(x,y)

Reducing the noise by adding a set of noisy images,

{gi(x,y)} 1 K
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

Weeks 1 & 2 87
 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise
Reduction
K
1
g ( x, y ) 
K
 g ( x, y )
i 1
i

1 K 
E  g ( x, y ) E   g i ( x, y )  
2
 2 K
 K i 1  g ( x,y ) 1
 gi ( x , y )
K i 1
1 K 
E    f ( x, y )  ni ( x, y )  
 K i 1  1 2
 2
  n( x, y )
1 K
 1 K
 ni ( x , y ) K
 f ( x, y )  E 
K

i 1
ni ( x, y ) 

K i 1

 f ( x, y )
Weeks 1 & 2 88
 Example: Addition of Noisy Images for Noise
Reduction

► In astronomy, imaging under very low light

levels frequently causes sensor noise to render
single images virtually useless for analysis.

► In astronomical observations, similar sensors for

noise reduction by observing the same scene
over long periods of time. Image averaging is
then used to reduce the noise.

Weeks 1 & 2 89
Weeks 1 & 2 90
 An Example of Image Subtraction: Mask Mode
Radiography

Mask h(x,y): an X-ray image of a region of a patient’s body

Live images f(x,y): X-ray images captured at TV rates after

injection of the contrast medium

Enhanced detail g(x,y)

g(x,y) = f(x,y) - h(x,y)

The procedure gives a movie showing how the contrast

medium propagates through the various arteries in the area
being observed.

Weeks 1 & 2 91
Weeks 1 & 2 92
 An Example of Image Multiplication

Weeks 1 & 2 93
 Set and Logical Operations

Weeks 1 & 2 94
 Set and Logical Operations
► Let A be the elements of a gray-scale image
The elements of A are triplets of the form (x, y, z),
where x and y are spatial coordinates and z
denotes the intensity at the point (x, y).

A {( x, y, z ) | z  f ( x, y )}
► The complement of A is denoted Ac
Ac {( x, y, K  z ) | ( x, y, z )  A}
K 2k  1; k is the number of intensity bits used to represent z

Weeks 1 & 2 95
 Set and Logical Operations
► The union of two gray-scale images (sets) A and B
is defined as the set

A  B {max(a, b) | a  A, b  B}
z

Weeks 1 & 2 96
 Set and Logical Operations

Weeks 1 & 2 97
 Set and Logical Operations

Weeks 1 & 2 98
 Spatial Operations

► Single-pixel operations
Alter the values of an image’s pixels based on the intensity.

s T ( z )

e.g.,

Weeks 1 & 2 99
 Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

The value of this pixel is

determined by a specified
operation involving the pixels
in the input image with
coordinates in Sxy

Weeks 1 & 2 100

 Spatial Operations
► Neighborhood operations

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 Geometric Spatial Transformations
► Geometric transformation (rubber-sheet
transformation)
— A spatial transformation of coordinates
( x, y ) T {(v, w)}

— intensity interpolation that assigns intensity values to the

spatially transformed pixels.

► Affine transform  t11 t12 0

 
x y 1  v w 1  t21 t22 0
 t31 t32 1 
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Weeks 1 & 2 103
 Intensity Assignment

► Forward Mapping

( x, y ) T {(v, w)}
It’s possible that two or more pixels can be transformed to
the same location in the output image.

► Inverse Mapping
(v, w) T  1{( x, y )}
The nearest input pixels to determine the intensity of the
output pixel value.
Inverse mappings are more efficient to implement than
forward mappings.
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Example: Image Rotation and Intensity
Interpolation

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 Image Registration

► Input and output images are available but the

transformation function is unknown.
Goal: estimate the transformation function and use
it to register the two images.

► One of the principal approaches for image

registration is to use tie points (also called
control points)
 The corresponding points are known precisely in
the input and output (reference) images.

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 Image Registration

► A simple model based on bilinear approximation:

 x c1v  c2 w  c3vw  c4

 y c5v  c6 w  c7 vw  c8

Where (v, w) and ( x, y ) are the coordinates of

tie points in the input and reference images.

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 Image Registration

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 Image Transform

► A particularly important class of 2-D linear

transforms, denoted T(u, v)
M 1 N1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u, v)
x 0 y 0

where f ( x, y ) is the input image,

r ( x, y, u , v) is the forward transformation ker nel ,
variables u and v are the transform variables,
u = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and v = 0, 1, ..., N-1.
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 Image Transform

► Given T(u, v), the original image f(x, y) can be

recoverd using the inverse tranformation of T(u, v).

M 1 N1
f ( x, y )    T (u , v) s ( x, y, u , v)
u 0 v 0

where s ( x, y, u , v) is the inverse transformation ker nel ,

x = 0, 1, 2, ..., M-1 and y = 0, 1, ..., N-1.

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 Image Transform

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 Example: Image Denoising by Using DCT
Transform

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 Forward Transform Kernel
M 1 N1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )r ( x, y, u , v)
x 0 y 0

The kernel r ( x, y, u, v) is said to be SEPERABLE if

r ( x, y, u , v) r1 ( x, u )r2 ( y, v)

In addition, the kernel is said to be SYMMETRIC if

r1 ( x, u ) is functionally equal to r2 ( y, v ), so that
r ( x, y, u , v) r1 ( x, u )r1 ( y, u )
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 The Kernels for 2-D Fourier Transform

The forward kernel

 j 2 ( ux / M vy / N )
r ( x, y, u , v) e
Where j =  1

The inverse kernel

1 j 2 (ux / M vy / N )
s ( x, y , u , v )  e
MN
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 2-D Fourier Transform

M 1 N1
T (u , v)    f ( x, y )e  j 2 ( ux / M vy / N )

x 0 y 0

M 1 N1
1
f ( x, y ) 
MN
  T (u, v)e
u 0 v 0
j 2 ( ux / M vy / N )

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 Probabilistic Methods
Let zi , i 0, 1, 2, ..., L -1, denote the values of all possible intensities
in an M N digital image. The probability, p( zk ), of intensity level
zk occurring in a given image is estimated as
nk
p ( zk )  ,
MN
where nk is the number of times that intensity zk occurs in the image.
L 1

 p( z ) 1
k 0
k

The mean (average) intensity is given by

L 1
m= z
k 0
k p ( zk )
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 Probabilistic Methods

The variance of the intensities is given by

L 1
 2 =  ( z k  m) 2 p ( z k )
k 0

The n th moment of the intensity variable z is

L 1
un ( z ) =  (z
k 0
k
n
 m) p ( z k )

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 Example: Comparison of Standard
Deviation Values

 14.3  31.6  49.2

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 Homework
http://cramer.cs.nmt.edu/~ip/assignments.html

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