HARDWARE-1

GAYATHRI ARUN
THE CPU& MICROPROCESSOR

• A computer system consists of hardware and software

• The main hardware components of a computer system are input
devices, the central processing unit, primary memory, secondary
storage and output devices
• Examples of input devices - keyboard, mouse, game controller,
sensors, microphone and webcam
• Examples of output devices -monitor, phone screen, speakers, printer,
and motors
• Data and commands are inputted by the user using an input device,
the central processing unit(CPU) processes data by executing
instructions and the results are outputted to an output device
• Below is an example of data being inputted, processed and the results
being outputted
WHAT IS A MICROPROCESSOR?

• A microprocessor is a type of integrated circuit on a single chip

• An integrated circuit is a small electronic circuit made up of transistors,
capacitors, resistors and other electronic components
• The integrated circuit contains a central processor designed to perform
arithmetic and logic operations, which include adding, subtracting, transferring
numbers from one memory location to another, and comparing two numbers
• The single chip also contains input/output interfaces, and memory
• Microprocessors area compact way of processing data and can be used in a
wide range of electronic devices, including general-purpose computer system
and Embedded system
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE

• The components in a CPU, in a computer that has a Von Neumann

architecture
• The Von Neumann computer architecture which most modern day
computers use, is based upon this concept
• The key feature of the stored program concept, and Von Neumann
architecture, is data and instructions are stored in the same memory (RAM )
as binary
• Another feature of Von Neumann architecture is a central processing
unit(CPU) fetches instructions from memory and executes them one at a
time(serially)
• The CPU then stores the results back into memory
COMPONENTS OF THE CENTRAL PROCESSING
UNIT
• The main purpose of the CPU is to execute instructions and process
data
• The CPU has two main components – the Control Unit (CU) and the
Arithmetic Logic Unit ALU)
• The Control Unit controls the flow of data around the CPU
• The Control Unit also sends control signals to the different components
instructing them what to do e.g. read, write, add, subtract
• The Control Unit decodes instructions (into an opcode and operand)
• The Control Unit controls the timings of operations (the clock speed)
• The Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU) performs the calculations required to execute
the instructions, these include ADD and SUBTRACT
• The ALU also carries out logical operations such as COMPARE
• The ALU has a built-in register where it stores interim results of calculations
• After calculations, the ALU sends data to the MDR
• The CPU also contains a number of registers which are small memory
locations within the CPU, which temporarily store data needed to execute an
instruction
• Special purpose registers have specific roles to play in the execution of an
instruction
BUSES

• Components within the CPU and wider computer system are connected by
buses. These are wires down which electronic signals and data travel. The
different buses are collectively called the system bus
• The system bus is made up of three different buses – the data bus, the
control bus and the address bus
• The data bus transmits data from the CPU to memory or input/output
controllers. It is bidirectional which means data can travel in both directions
• The address bus transfers addresses from the CPU to memory. It is
unidirectional which mean addresses only go from the CPU to memory
• The control bus transfers control signals from the control unit to other
components in the computer system such as memory or input/ output
controllers. The control bus is bidirectional
THE FETCH, DECODE, EXECUTE CYCLE

• The Central Processing Unit(CPU) executes instructions by performing

the Fetch Decode Execute cycle
• The CPU fetches an instruction from memory
• The instruction is then decoded ( by the Control Unit) into an opcode and
an operand
• The instruction is executed and the whole cycle is repeated with the next
instruction in the process
CPU PERFORMANCE

• Central Processing Units can have multiple cores

• A dual-core processor has two cores
• A quad-core processor has four cores
• Each core runs separate fetch, decode, execute cycles, independently from one
another and at the same time(simultaneously) meaning parallel processing can take
place
• Multiple cores enables multitasking(running more than one program at the same
time)
• Some programs cannot be split between cores
• The more cores a computer has the more instructions that can be executed per
second resulting in better performance
• Each core has a clock speed
• The clock speed is how many instructions the core can execute each
second
• The clock speed is measured in Hertz
• Modern cores can execute billions of instructions per second
• A gigahertz (GHz) is a billion instructions per second
• A megahertz (MHz) is a million instructions per second
• A CPU core with a clock speedof3.4GHz can execute3.4billion instructions
per second
• Cache is a small amount of memory situated within or close to the CPU
with very fast read/write speeds
• It is used for storing frequently used instructions/ data, recently used
instructions, and instructions that are to be fetched and executed next in a
process.
• The impact of increasing the amount of cache is that more data can be
stored there and accessed faster than if it was in RAM …which improves the
performance of the CPU.

• Double the number of cores does not necessarily mean double the
number of instructions executed a second. The cores might have
different clock speeds and cache sizes.
INSTRUCTION SETS

• An instruction set is a list of all the commands that can be processed

by a CPU
• Each command has a unique binary code
• The table below shows an example instruction set. Each instruction has
a mnemonic that indicates what the instruction does along side a
corresponding binary code
• After an instruction is decoded into an opcode and an operand, the CPU
finds the opcode in the processor’s instruction set. It then knows what
operation to perform when executing the instruction
• Instruction lists are machine-specific
• This means a program created using one computer’s instruction set would
not run on a computer containing a processor made by a different
manufacturer
• For example, a computer program created using Intel’s instruction set
would not run on a device containing an ARM processor
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

• An embedded system is a computer systems with a either one function or

limited specific functions built with in a larger mechanical device
• Its purpose is to control the device and allow a user to interact with it
• It runs on firmware and does not have additional peripherals
• An embedded system is different to a general purpose computer system like a
laptop or desktop computer which can be used to perform many different tasks
• The vast majority of microprocessors manufactured are for use as embedded
systems
• Some embedded systems are microcontrollers meaning they are part of an
integrated circuit with built in memory
• The microprocessor used in an embedded system is often custom
designed
• Embedded systems often have firmware which is software built into the
system which cannot be reprogrammed by the user. The software may
be able to be updated e.g. GPS software in a car navigation system
• Embedded systems usually have some form of analog or digital input
• There are many advantages of embedded systems
• low power consumption
• small physical size
• low cost to manufacturer
• they can be controlled remotely
• can operate in real time and respond to inputs very quickly
INPUT DEVICES

• Every computer system receives commands and data, from the real
world, via input devices
• Input devices converts inputs into digital data which can be processed
• For conventional computer systems, such as desktop computers and
laptops, the most common input devices are the mouse and the key
board
• There area wide range of input devices used in more specialist
computer systems such as scanners and sensors
BARCODE SCANNER
• Barcodes area series of black and white bars which represent a code
• A barcode reader shines a red laser at the barcode to read the data it
represents
• The light from the white lines is reflected back
• Black lines absorb the light so less is reflected
• The different levels of reflection are converted into a binary value
which can be processed by a microprocessor
• A barcode reader can be hand held or built into a larger machine such
as a self-service checkout at a supermarket
• Barcodes can be used in many ways such as identifying a product
being sold or tracking a package through the delivery process
• Benefits include faster checkouts, automated stock control, less chance
of error due to manual entry of data, and more detailed tracking
information
DIGITAL CAMERA

• A digital camera works by capturing light and converting it into a digital

image
• Light enters the camera through the lens, it reaches an image sensor
where it is split into millions of pixels (small squares).Each pixel
measures light intensity which is converted into binary and represents
a colour.
• Digital cameras are integrated into smartphones , used in security
systems and by professional photographers to create high quality
digital images
• An advantage of digital cameras is they show a preview of the image
• They also instantly create an image which can then be easily
duplicated and transmitted via bluetooth or WiFi
• Software can be used to edit digital photos, for example applying a
filter or retouching a photo
KEYBOARD

• A keyboard is the most common device used for text-based data input
• They are connected either by a USB cable or wirelessly to the computer
system
• They are built into laptops. Smartphones and tablets have virtual
keyboards Each key on a keyboard has a peg underneath it which
makes contact with a conducting membrane. This is then converted
into an electrical signal to transmit a unique character code
MICROPHONE

• A computer microphone works by converting sound waves into electrical

signals that can be processed by the computer.
• They can capture any real world sound and convert it into digital data
which can be stored, duplicated or modified
• The microphone has a diaphragm that vibrates in response to sound
waves. These vibrations are then converted into electrical signals by a
coil of wire attached to the back of the diaphragm. Changes in the signal
are recorded by a microprocessor using a analogue to digital converter
• Microphones are used to record music, telephone calls, communicate
online and dictation
OPTICAL MOUSE

• A mouse use a laser to detect and track movement, this is then

processed by a microprocessor which interprets the movement and
replicates it when moving a virtual cursor on-screen
• Items can be selected or moved using the left mouse button, whilst the
right button usually displays additional menus
• They can be wired or wireless
• They are used to control the cursor in a Graphical User Interface(GUIs)
• They are simple to use and provide the user with an intuitive way to
navigate the computer
• They are reliable due to no moving parts
QR CODE SCANNER
• A QR code is a visual representation of data using black and white
squares
• QR codes can represent over 7000 digits whereas a barcode represents
upto30 digits
• QR codes are scanned by a camera (often on a mobile device)
• A piece of software convert the squares into binary data
• QR codes often link toa website where more information can be found
• They can also be used to advertise products, share contact details,
provide promotional codes, train tickets, and event tickets
TOUCHSCREEN
2D AND 3D SCANNERS

• A two-dimensional(or flat-bed) scanner shines a strip of light over a

document. Reflected light is measured for each pixel. This data is
converted into binary data so the document can be digitally recreated
• A three-dimensional laser scanner shines a light over an object. The
geometry and dimensions are recorded so the object can be recreated
digitally
• The digital 3D model can be modified using specialist software
• A 3D printer could then printout the model
• 2D scanners can be used for creating digital versions of documents or
photographs
• Reading passports at airports
• 3D scanners can be used to create 3D models for use with computer-
aided design (CAD) software
• Creating replicas with 3D printers
• Typical uses of 3D scanners and printers are dentistry, product
development, medical
• A cheap and quick way of creating a digital representation of both 2D
and3D objects so they can be manipulated, stored, transmitted or
copied
OUTPUT DEVICES

• An output device shows the results of the processing in a way humans

can understand
• In a general purpose computer system, the main output device is the
monitor/screen
• Other output devices include projectors, printers, speakers and
actuators
ACTUATORS

• Actuators are used in conjunction with a motor to translate energy

(electrical, air, hydraulic) into real-world movement of a physical
object. They come in a variety of sizes and have been made specifically
for a particular function.
• Examples of use include turning a wheel, opening or closing a door,
controlling a conveyer belt, operating machinery, moving robotic arms,
vibrating a machine, starting or stopping a pump, opening or closing a
valve
• They are often used with sensors. The input of the sensor is checked
against stored values. If the input is within a certain range an actuator
is used to provide movement of a physical object
LIGHT PROJECTORS

• Used to project computer outputs on to a large screen

• Used to give presentations in both business and education settings
• There are two types -Digital light processing(DLP) projectors and Liquid
crystal display (LCD) projectors.
• DLP systems use millions of micro-mirrors arranged in a grid on a
microprocessor within the projector. Light is shone through colour filters
and the mirrors. The position of the mirrors can be altered to change
the intensity of the light
• LCD projectors use three mirror filters to separate an image into red,
green and blue wavelengths. The three images are then combined to
produce the full colour image which is passed through the lens on to
the wall/screen
LASER AND INKJET PRINTERS

• Both printers create hard copies of a digital document Hardcopies are needed
when you do not have access to an electronic device
• Inkjet printers:
• Have a print head which moves across the page
• Spray liquid ink droplets from ink cartridges through very fine nozzles onto the
paper (these are in the print head)
• The droplets can be piezo electric or thermal bubble technology
• Inkjet printers produce high quality hard copies of digital images or documents
• Laser printers:
• Are very fast when making multiple copies of a document
• Are useful for high volume print jobs for example producing leaflets
• Have a low running cost per page.
• Are often used in business and education setting
• Have large toner(dry ink) cartridges and large paper trays
• Use positive and negative charges to make the toner particles stick to
piece of paper, heat is then used to bond the particles to the paper
3D PRINTERS

• 3D printers create3D models of a digital model by depositing layers of

material, such as plastic or resin, on top of one another to slowly build
up a 3D object
• They allow for precision and can be used in medicine to create
prosthetics and blood vessels
• 3D printers can be used to create rapid prototypes
• Models can be transmitted digitally and then models printed out all
across the world
LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY SCREENS

• LCD screens are made up of millions of tiny liquid crystals.

• The display is made of pixels arranged in a matrix
• The display requires backlighting
• They are used for TVs, monitors, tablets and phones
• They have low power consumption and run at a cool temperature
• They do not suffer image burn or flicker issues
• They provide bright images and colours
• They are cheaper to produce than LED screens
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) SCREEN

• An LED screen is made up of tiny LEDs

• They do not need back lighting which makes them thinner and lighter
to hang on the wall
• LED screens are replacing LCD displays in TVs, monitors, laptops and
mobile devices
• They have better image quality and a longer life span
• They can be used to create very large screens that can be used to
show visual content at events such as football matches and music
festivals
• They consume very little power making them suitable for being
switched on for many hours in the day
ORGANIC LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (OLED)
SCREEN
• Much thinner and lighter than traditional LCD screens Use organic light
emitting diodes (OLEDS).
• They use organic carbon compound to create semiconductors No form
of back lighting is required You can have very thin, flexible screens
SPEAKERS

• Speakers are used to take digital sounds or recordings and output them
as soundwaves which can be heard by humans
• The digital data is changed into a electric current using a digital to
analogue converter (DAC)
• Itis then passed through an amplifier to create a current large enough
to drive a loudspeaker
• The loud speaker converts the current into a soundwave
• Typical uses include listening to music, listening to video sound,
telephone calls and alarms
SENSORS

• Sensors are input devices

• They measure a physical property of their environment such as light
levels, temperature or movement
• Sensors can be used for monitoring systems and control systems
• A monitoring system tracks the state of a system, it gathers data and may
issue warning messages
• A control system will control the system based upon the input from sensors
• For example, if the water temperature in a fish tank fell below the
acceptable level, a control system would start up a heater. The system
will then continue to check the water temperature readings and when
they are with in the acceptable range it will switch off the heater
• This process of the outputs affecting the following set of input values
received from the sensors is called a feedback loop