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    You are on page 1of 49

    Section 2.

    2: Affine Ciphers;
    More Modular Arithmetic

    Practice HW (not to hand in)


    From Barr Textbook
    p. 80 # 2a, 3e, 3f, 4, 5a, 7, 8
    9, 10 (Use affinecipherbreaker Maplet)

    Extra Problems
    Find the following gcd’s Answers
    a. gcd(30, 40) 10
    b. gcd(150, 500) 50
    c. gcd(187, 455) 1
    In shift ciphers, messages are encrypted by using
    an additive key. To increase security, we can, in
    addition to an additive parameter, encipher
    messages using a multiplicative parameter.

    In affine ciphers, the key used for encipherment


    involves using both a multiplicative and additive
    parameter. Before describing affine ciphers, we
    give some necessary mathematics background.
    Mathematics Background for
    Affine Ciphers
    • All natural numbers - numbers in the set
    {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, }
    can be expressed as the product of two or
    more numbers. For example,

    6 2 3, 20 4 5 2 2 5, and 7 1 7 .


    Two numbers that can be multiplied together to
    get another number are called the factors or
    divisors of that number. For example,

    • 6 2 3 (2 and 3 are the divisors or


    factors of 6)

    • 20 4 5 2 2 5 (2 and 5 are factors or


    divisors of 20).

    • 7 1 7 (1 and 7 are the divisors or


    factors of 7).
    Definition
    • A natural number p is said to be prime if p  1
    and its only divisors are 1 and p. A natural
    number that is not prime is said to be
    composite.
    • It can be shown that there are an infinite
    number of primes. The following set lists the
    first ten primes:
    {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, }

    The prime numbers provide the building blocks


    of all numbers. The next theorem illustrates this
    fundamental fact.
    The Fundamental Theorem of
    Arithmetic
    • Every natural number larger than 1 is a product
    of primes. This factorization can be done in only
    one way if order is disregarded.

    For example, to factor 30, we can compute

    30  6 5  2 3 5 
     3 2 
    5 5 23
    same prime factorization disregardi ng order
    • An elementary way to obtain prime
    factorizations with small prime factors involves
    the use of a calculator and a factor tree. The
    next two examples illustrate this technique.
    Example 1: Factor 90

    Solution:
    Example 2: Factor 935

    Solution:
    Greatest Common Divisor
    • The greatest common divisor of two
    natural numbers a and b, denoted as
    gcd(a, b) , is the largest natural number
    that divides a and b with no remainder.
    Elementary Method for Computing the gcd of
    Two Numbers

    • Decompose each number into its prime factors.


    The gcd is obtained by multiplying the prime
    factors the two numbers have in common. If the
    two numbers have no common prime factors,
    then the gcd = 1.
    Example 3: Find the gcd(20, 30).

    Solution:
    Example 4: Find the gcd(1190, 935).

    Solution:
    Example 5: Find the gcd(15, 26).

    Solution:
    Note
    • Two numbers a and b where the gcd(a, b) 1
    are said to be relatively prime.
    Example 6: Fill in the ( ) for (2)  1, (10)  1,
    and (a )  1 if we are working in the real number
    system.

    Solution:
    Multiplicative Inverses
    • In the real number system, every non-zero
    number has a multiplicative inverse – the
    number you must multiply to a given
    number to get 1.
    *Note
    • In some number systems, multiplicative
    inverses in most cases do not exist.

    Example 7: Solve (2)  1 and (10)  1 using


    the integers { ,  4,  3,  2,  1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }

    Solution:
    Fact
    • In the modular arithmetic system, a
    multiplicative inverse may or may not exist,
    depending on the following fact involving the
    gcd:

    If the gcd(b, m) 1 , then b has an inverse with


    1
    respect to the modulus m, that is, b exists.
    Example 8: Does 8 have an inverse with respect
    to the modulus 26?

    Solution:
    Example 9: Does 9 have and inverse with
    respect to the modulus 26?

    Solution:
    Later in the course, we will see a general
    mathematical method for computing multiplicative
    inverses. For now, since we will work with a MOD
    26 system, we will display a table showing the
    numbers in a MOD 26 with their multiplicative
    inverses:
    MOD 26 Multiplicative Inverse Table

    a 1 3 5 7 9 11 15 17 19 21 23 25

    a  1MOD 26 1 9 21 15 3 19 7 23 11 5 17 25
    Example 10: Use the multiplicative inverse table
    1
    to find 7 MOD 26.

    Solution:
    • Multiplicative inverses expand our ability to solve
    equations and congruences in modular
    arithmetic. This is made possible using the
    multiplicative property of modular arithmetic,
    which we state next.

    Multiplicative Property for Modular Arithmetic

    Ifa b mod m , then

    ka kb mod m
    for any number k.
    Example 11: Solve 11x  1 5 mod 26 for x.

    Solution:
    • Multiplicative inverses in modular arithmetic can
    be useful in solving systems of linear equations,
    which are useful for cryptanalysis. This next
    example illustrates this fact.
    Example 12: Solve the system of equations
    (congruences)
    8a  b  18 mod 26
    17a  b  11 mod 26

    Solution:
    Mathematical Description of Affine
    Ciphers
    • Given a and b in Z 26 {0, 1, 2,  , 24, 25}
    where gcd(a, 26) 1.

    We encipher a plaintext letter x to obtain a


    ciphertext letter y by computing

    y (ax  b) MOD 26.

    Here, the key is made up of a multiplicative


    parameter a and an additive parameter b.
    Example 13: Encipher “RADFORD” using the
    affine cipher y (5 x  4) MOD 26.

    Solution:
    Note
    Recall that for an affine cipher y (ax  b) MOD 26
    to be defined properly, gcd(a, 26) 1 .

    Besides allowing a recipient to decipher a


    message, the next example illustrates another
    reason why this requirement is essential.
    Example 14 Use the affine cipher
    y (2 x  1) MOD 26 to encipher “AN”.

    Solution:
    Deciphering an Affine Cipher
    • For an affine cipher y (ax  b) mod 26 where
    gcd(a, 26) 1 , decipherment can be done
    uniquely. Given the numerical representation of
    the plaintext message x and ciphertext
    message y , we take

    y (ax  b) mod 26
    Example 15: Decipher the message
    “ARMMVKARER” that was encrypted using the
    affine cipher
    y (3x  5) MOD 26
    • Solution:
    Cryptanalysis of Affine Ciphers
    • For an affine cipher y (ax  b) MOD 26, an
    enemy must know the multiplicative
    parameter a and additive parameter b in
    order to decipher and break a message.
    Once a and b are known,
    x a  1 ( y  b) MOD 26
    can be computed and the message broken.
    Two methods of attack can be used to
    attempt to break an affine cipher.
    Methods for Breaking and Affine Cipher

    1. Exhaustion. Note there are 12 possible


    multiplicative parameters a where
    gcd(a, 26) = 1 and 26 possible additive
    parameters b . This gives 12 26 312 total
    pairs ( a, b) to test.
    2. Frequency analysis. Quicker way which
    involves matching to highly frequently
    occurring ciphertext letters with two highly
    frequently occurring plaintext letters. Involves
    solving a system of equations MOD 26.

    The next example illustrates method 2.


    Example 16: Suppose we receive a ciphertext
    that was enciphered using an affine cipher. After
    running a frequency analysis on the ciphertext,
    we find out that the most highly frequently
    occurring letters in the ciphertext are W and H.
    Assuming that these letters correspond to E and
    T respectively, find the parameters and that
    were used in the affine cipher.
    Solution: Recall that for an affine cipher
    y (ax  b) mod 26

    x is the numerical representation of the plaintext


    letter and y is the numerical representation of the
    ciphertext letter. Hence, using the MOD 26
    alphabet assignment and the equation
    y (ax  b) mod 26 , we see that
    Plaintext E  x 4corresponds to the ciphertext
    W  y 22 which gives the equation

    (1)
    22 (a 4  b) mod 26
    Plaintext T  x 19corresponds to the ciphertext
    H  y 7which gives the equation

    (2)
    7 (a 19  b) mod 26
    Rearranging and putting these equations together
    gives
    4a  b  22 mod 26 (1)
    19a  b  7 mod 26 (2)

    To find a, we must solve this system of


    equations.

    To eliminate the parameter b, we subtract


    equation (2) from equation (1):
    4a  b  22 mod 26

    19a  b  7 mod 26
     15a  15 mod 26
    Since  15 MOD 26 11, we can write the
    resulting equation from the subtraction as:
    11a  15 mod 26

    We next solve this result by multiplying both sides


    1
    by 11 :
    11 1 11 a  11 1 15 mod 26

    Noting from the MOD 26 multiplicative inverse


    1
    table that 11 mod 26 19 , we obtain
    a 19 15 mod 26 285 mod 26 25

    Hence a = 25. We can substitute a = 25 into


    either equation (1) or (2) to find b. Choosing
    equation (1) 4a  b  22 mod 26 , we obtain:

    4(25)  b 22 mod 26

    or
    100  b 22 mod 26
    Subtracting 100 from both sides gives

    b (22  100) mod 26


    or
    b  78 mod 26 0
    Hence a = 25 and b = 0 solves the above system
    of equations. Hence, the affine cipher

    y = (25x + 0) mod 26 = 25x mod 26

    was used to encrypt the message.

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