Presentation Of

Group#03
Presentation 1
 Subject & instructor

Computer Networks
By
Mam Tayyaba Rashid

Presentation 2
 Group Members
&
Topics To Cover

 Ali Muhammad
-Error
-Types of Errors
-Redundancy
-Ways of Correcting Errors.
 Muhammad Talha Khalid
-Block Coding
-Error Detection by Using Block Coding.
-Error Correction by Using Block Coding.

Group No.03 3
 Group Members
&
Topics To Cover

 Abdul Rehman Wakeel

-Hamming Distance
-Minimum Hamming Distance
-Minimum Hamming Distance for Error
Detection
-Minimum Hamming Distance for Error
Correction

Group No.03 4
 Group Members
&
Topics To Cover

 Ali Zia
-Cyclic Code
-Linearity
-Cyclic Shift
-Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 Arifa Anwar
-Checksum
-1’s Complement Checksum
-Internet Checksum

Group No.03 5
 Error
A condition when the
receiver’s information
does not match with
the sender’s
information.
During transmission,
digital signals suffer
from noise that can
introduce errors in the
binary bits travelling
from sender to receiver.

That means a 0 bit may

change to 1 or a 1 bit Group No.03 6
 Types of Errors

Errors can be divided into

two types :
1. Single-bit error
2. Burst error.

Single-bit Error
The term single-bit error
means that only one bit
of given data unit (such
as a byte, character, or
data unit) is changed
from 1 to 0 or from 0 to
1.

Burst Error
The term burst error
means that two or more
bits in the data unit have
changed from 0 to 1 or
vice-versa. Group No.03 7
 Redundancy
 To be able to detect or correct errors,
we need to send some extra bits with
our data .

 These resident bits are added by

sender and removed by receiver
.
 Example:
 [110][1100101]

Group No.03 8
 Redundant Bit
 Redundant bits or extra
binary digits that are
generated and moved with a
data transfer to ensure that
no bits were lost during the
data transfer.

Group No.03 9
Ways of Correcting Errors

Ways

Forward error Correction by

correction Retransmission

Group No.03 10
Forward Error correction:
The process in which the receiver tries to guess the
message by using redundant bits.
 if the number of errors is small.
Correction By Retransmission:

 Retransmission is a technique in which the

receiver detect the occurrence of an error.
 They ask the sender to resend the message.
 Resending is repeated until a message arrives that
the receiver believe is error free.

Group No.03 11
 Block Coding

 Block coding refers to the technique of

adding extra bits to a digital word in
order to improve the reliability of
transmission.

 Examples of block codes are Reed–

Solomon codes, Hamming codes,
Hadamard codes, Expander codes, Golay
codes, and Reed–Muller codes.

Group No.03 12
Error Detection by Using Block
Coding

 If the following two conditions are

met, the receiver can detect a change
in the original codeword.

The receiver has (or can find) a list

of valid codewords.

The original codeword has changed

to an invalid one.
Group No.03 13
 The sender creates codewords out of datawords by
using a generator that applies the rules and
procedures of encoding (discussed later). Each
codeword sent to the receiver may change during
transmission.

 If the received codeword is the same as one of the

valid codewords, the word is accepted; the
corresponding dataword is extracted for use. If the
received codeword is not valid, it is discarded.

 However, if the codeword is corrupted during

transmission but the received word still matches a
valid codeword, the error remains undetected. This
type of coding can detect only single errors. Two or
more errors may remain undetected.
Group No.03 14
Group No.03 15
Error Correction by Using Block
Coding

 In error detection, the receiver needs to

know only that the received codeword is
invalid; in error correction the receiver
needs to find (or guess) the original
codeword sent.

 We can say that we need more redundant

bits for error correction than for error
detection.

Group No.03 16
 Hamming Distance


The Hamming distance is a
metric (in the mathematical
sense) used in error
correction theory to
measure the distance
between two codewords.

Group No.03 17
Group No.03 18
 Minimum Hamming
Distance
 The Minimum Hamming distance
is used to define some essential notions
in coding theory, such as error detecting
and error correcting codes. In particular,
a code C is said to be k error detecting if,
and only if, the minimum
 Hamming distance between any two of
its codewords is at least k+1.

Group No.03 19
Minimum Hamming distance for
error detection

 To design a code that can detect d single

bit errors, the minimum Hamming
distance for the set of codewords must
be d + 1 (or more). That way, no set
of d errors in a single bit could turn one
valid codeword into some other valid
codeword.

Group No.03 20
Minimum Hamming distance for
error correction
 To design a code that can correct d single
bit errors, a minimum distance of 2d + 1
is required. That puts the valid codewords
so far apart that even after bit errors
in d of the bits, it is still less than half the
distance to another valid codeword, so
the receiver will be able to determine
what the correct starting codeword was.

Group No.03 21
Group No.03 22
 CYCLIC CODE


A Cyclic Code is a block code,
where the circular shifts of each
codeword gives another word that
belongs to the code.

They are error-correcting codes that have

algebraic properties that are convenient
for efficient error detection and
correction.

Group No.03 23
 LINEARITY
 In computer networking, linear network
coding is a program in which
intermediate nodes transmit data
from source nodes to sink nodes by
means of linear combinations.

 The sum of two codewords in the code is

also a codeword.

Group No.03 24
 CYCLIC SHIFT
In computer programming, a
bitwise rotation, also known as
a circular shift, is a bitwise
operation that shifts all bits
of its operand.

Group No.03 25
Group No.03 26
 CYCLIC REDUNDANCY
CHECK
 CRC or Cyclic
Redundancy
Check is a
method of
detecting
accidental
changes/erro
rs in the
communicati
on channel.
Group No.03 27
 Checksum

• Checksum is a method to detect errors.

• The data is send in form of blocks with ‘n’
number of bits in it.
• Checksum is based on the concept of
redundancy.
• Still some protocols use checksum to detect
errors.
Group No.03 28
 Basic Checksum
• A number of string are selected to be send with the
same bit size at the sender’s site.

• The sum of all the strings is taken.

• The sum result of the strings is also send with the

string data to the receiver’s site.

• The receiver then adds all the string values it

receives except the last value which is the sum result

Group No.03 29
• Then the receiver compare the value with the
last value that the sender have send (sum
result).

• If both values are equal then the receiver

discards the sum result value and keeps the
string value as no error is detected.

• If the values are different then the receiver will

request the sender to send the whole data
again as error was detected.

Group No.03 30
 1’s Complement Checksum
• The sender initializes the checksum to
zero.

• All the data items are added and the

result is the sum of all the data items.

• The sum is then converted into 4 bit by

adding the extra bits in the sum which
becomes wrapped sum.
Group No.03 31
• Then 1’s complement is taken of the wrapped sum
which is the checksum value.

• The checksum is send with the data items to the

receiver’s site.

• The receiver then adds all the data items including

the checksum value.

• Then the result is wrapped to obtain the wrapped

sum.

• The wrapped sum is then complemented, if the

answer is zero then no error are detected otherwise
errors are detected.
Group No.03 32
 Internet Checksum
 At Sender’s Site:
1) The message is divided into 16-bit words.
2) The value of the checksum word is set to O.
3) All words including the checksum are added
using one's complement addition.
4) The sum is complemented and becomes the
checksum.
5) The sum is complemented and becomes the
checksum.

Group No.03 33
 Internet Checksum
 At Receiver’s Site:

1) The message (including checksum) is divided into 16-

bit words.

2) All words are added using one's complement addition

3) The sum is complemented and becomes the new

checksum.

4) If the value of checksum is 0, the message is

accepted; otherwise, it is rejected.
Group No.03 34
 Checksum Performance
 The advantage of checksum is that it can detects
errors involving an even and odd number of bits.

 It is not as strong as CRC error checking method.

 If the value of one word is incremented and the value

of another word is decremented by the same amount,
the two errors cannot be detected because the sum
and checksum remain the same.

 The tendency in the Internet, particularly in designing

new protocols, is to replace the checksum with a CRC.
Group No.03 35
Thanks for Your
Attention!!
 Any Quarries??
_____
_____
_____

Group No.03 36